(完整word版)应用语言学第一二章.doc

1、Chapter 11.What Is Applied Linguistics?1).What is applied linguistics? Why is there no consensus on its definition and scope? Applied linguistics aimed to solve problems in various fields by applying the knowledge of linguistics. As applied linguistics is a comparatively new discipline, there is as

2、yet no consensus of opinions as to what its definition is and how wide its scope should be.2.What is the role of applied linguistics? Why does it play that role? The role of applied linguistics Applied linguistics thus not only provides principles and basic methodology for languageteachers, etc., ba

3、sed on the theories and insights of linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc.; it also provides feedback to linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc., by summing up the experience from the practical areas such as language teaching.3.Whatis the natureof applied linguistics?

4、Whatis the difference between appliedlinguistics and other applied sciences?Answer:the nature of applied linguistics(1) It is an independent discipline in its own right, because* it has its own object of study;* it has its own scientific system of theories and methodology; and* it has its own resear

5、chers.(2) It is an interdisciplinary science, because it draws upon theories not from a single science, but from several. Besides, its application is also interdisciplinary in the broad sense.(3) It is an applied science. Its goal is to solve problem, i. e. application, unlike pure science.But we sh

6、ould not understand application in a narrow sense. Applied linguistics is also concerned with implications of the theoretical fields such as linguistics, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics.(4) It is an empirical science. Like natural sciences, it uses experiments as its basic way of research, em

7、phasizing objectivity, systematicness, explicitness and economy.The goal of applied linguistics is to solve problem, i.e., application. But we should not understand application in the literal sense. Applied linguistics is also concerned with implications of the theoretical fields such as linguistics

8、, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics.4.What is the relationship between applied linguistics and language learning and teaching?Answer: Good language teaching practice is based on good theoretical understanding, and a good language teaching theory will strive to provide a conceptual framework devise

9、d for identifying all factors relevant in the teaching of language and relationship between them and for giving effective direction to the practice of language teaching, supported by the necessary research and inquiry.5.Why is it necessary for the language teacher to learn applied linguistics?Answer

10、: Appliedlinguisticsaims to provide language teachers with good language teachingtheories, principles and methodology. The language teacher can benefit from applied linguistics in, at least, the following three areas: a comprehensive and up-to-date grasp of the theoretical foundations of language le

11、arning and teaching; an integrated understanding of the various factors affecting language learning and teaching, and a basic knowledge about different language teaching approaches, methods and techniques. In short, applied linguistics will help the language teacher teach more effectively.Chapter 2L

12、anguage, Learning and Teaching1.What is the nature of language? Why is it necessary for the language teacher to know it?Language is systematic and generative. It is a set of arbitrary symbols and they have conventionalized meanings to which they refer. is used for communication. operates in a speech

13、 community or culture. language and language learning both have universal characteristics.By system: we mean the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designsin which a language operates. Every language contains two systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. This phen

14、omenon is called duality.“arbitrary vocal symbols ”: Anything that represents something else is a symbol.Language consists of another type of symbols, sound symbols or speech sounds.human communication: Language is a unique system of communication. It is the cement of society. It allows people to li

15、ve, work and play together, to tell the truth or to tell lies.Teachers cannot hope to teach a part (the particular language) of reality without knowing howthat part fits into the whole(language in general) Yourunderstanding of the components oflanguage will determine to a large extenthow u teach a l

16、anguage.2.What are the similarities and differences between human learning and animal learning？How do you understand language learning ？Animal learning for simple communication .express the food source, very simple emotion like anger and happiness. human learning complex idea. hypothesis , give comm

17、and, thinking. Language learning in a broad sense include both formal learning in the classroomstimulated by teaching and natural informal language learning without instruction from any teacher.Learning is the prerequisite and basis of teaching.A theory of teaching always implies a theory of learnin

18、g.3.What is teaching? Can it be defined apart from learning? Why(not)? Teaching can be defined as “activities whichare intended to bringabout learning.” Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning, because teaching presupposes learning. There will be no teaching if learning does not take place.4.

19、Illustrate the relationship between language teaching and language learning?J. S. Bruner-1966Toward a Theory of Instruction“ Learning something withthe aid of an instructor should, if instruction is effective, be less dangerous or risky orpainful than learning on one s own. ”Teaching understand the

20、learnersdevelopment ,skill, motivation and gives formal instruction ,training, by media or different kind of supportive activities. thus makes learning easier.5. Why is it necessary for the language teacher to have some knowledge not only of teaching but also of learning?Since the mid-1960s,the stud

21、ent-centered view has been widely accepted, This reflects the theory that the students play an active role in learning ,and that they are not only actively participating in classroom activities ,but are interacting with the teacher and their peers.Chapter 31. What are the characteristic features of

22、human learning?conceptualization of learning has several implications:1） . Everything we learn is retained in some form in our brain, even though it may be forgotten.2.） Learning cannot be equated with behavior or performance.3） . Learning includes not only deliberately acquired new associations but

23、 also those acquired without conscious awareness, when we are paying primary attention to something else.4） . The new associations which constitute learning vary in meaningfulness and complexity.5） . All learning depends upon environmental input.6） . Learning is not restricted to new associations or

24、 insights that result from experience with purely external stimuli.2、 What are the four general philosophical views of human nature? How are they related tohuman learning?The pessimistic viewAccording to this view, humans are inherently evil. Therefore, education must be designed to keep dangerous i

25、nstincts under control. This philosophy leads to approaches which emphasize the will not engage in higher intellectual pursuit voluntarily, but they will learn if they are forced to.The hedonistic viewAccording to this view, people are selfishly preoccupied with the pursuit of pleasure and the avoid

26、ance of pain. This philosophy leads to approaches which emphasize the need to make learning experience as enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding as possible.The optimistic viewAccording to this view, people are naturally altruistic, humanistic and curious. This view leads to theories that picture peo

27、ple as thirsting for knowledge and actively processing information fromthe environment.The tabula-rasa or“ blank-slate” viewThis is a neutral view. Accordingto this view, humans have few if any natural predispositions.Development, therefore, is dependent upon the individual s experiences, which are

28、determined bythe environment and are thus open to planning and control. Inits strongest form,this approachpictures learners as almost entirely passive and reactive, so that their behavior can be controlledpredictablyand systematically through environmental manipulation.Teaching then becomes amatter

29、of structuring learning environments so as to produce desired outcomes.3 、 What are the similarities and differences between classical behaviorism and neobehaviorism?Similarities: They are predominantly concerned with the relationship between stimulus and response. According to them, behavior is acq

30、uired or changed when the organism builds up associations between stimulus and response either because of the closeness of stimulus and response or by satisfaction which comes from giving a correct response to a given stimulus.Differences: classical behaviorism is related to association between stim

31、uli and reflexive response, Classical conditioning, Reflex could also occur in response to stimuli that appear to be indirectly related to the reflex. neobehaviorism focuses on operant conditioning VS respondent conditioning (Classical conditioning). classical behaviorism stressed the environmental

32、modifiability of behavior, as against determination by constitutional structure. Neobehaviorism : Guthrie stressed classical conditioning and the principle of contiguity over instrumental conditioning and the principle of reinforcement. Hull stressed one-trial learning. The whole process was control

33、led by reinforcement. Skinner stresses a particular kind of instrumentalconditioning known as “ operant conditioning ” . Operants are any behavioralmentsseriesle f related behaviors that organisms presently perform or are capable of performing, and the produce an effect or operate on the environment

34、.4、 What are the strengths and weaknesses of the behaviorist theories?Watson behaviorism: he stressed the environmental modifiabilityof behavior, as againstdeterminationby constitutionalstructure. He seek to make psychologya “ purely objectiveexperimental branch of natural science”by restricting it

35、to the study of the relations betweenenvironmental events(stimuli)and behavior(response). But there willbe an increase in bothfrequency and recency of successful responses until a correct S-R pattern appears.Guthrie-sRStheory: He stressed classical conditioning and the principle of contiguity overin

36、strumentalconditioningandtheprincipleofreinforcement.However,ithas difficultyaccounting for more complex kinds of learning.Hull s-OS-R theory: Hull stressed one-trial learning. The whole process was controlled byreinforcement. Reinforced responses would be more likely to appear in the future, and pu

37、nished orunreinforced responses were less likely to reappear.Skinner operants conditioning:he stresses a particularkindofinstrumental conditioningknown as“ operantconditioning. ”Operants are any behavioralelements or series f relatedbehaviorsthat organisms presentlyperform or are capable of performi

38、ng, and the produce aneffect oroperate onthe environment. Otherwise, when there isapunishment(i.e apositivereinforcingstimulusis removedora negative reinforcingstimulusis presented), therate ofresponding decreases.5、 What are the similarities and differences among the cognitive learning theories? Wh

39、y are they cognitive?Gestalt psychology: eh emphasizes on innate organizing principles(gestalt) in human perception, recognition, sensorimotor skills, learning and even in social conduct . according to this theory, organisms are innately active in their interactions with the environment.Piaget s dev

40、elopmental psychology: his basic concepts are assimilation and accommodation. Herefers to the learning process as the development of new schemata (the plural of schema) throughassimilationand accommodation. Schemata are the cognitive or mental structures by which theindividual intellectually adapts

41、to and organizes the environment. These cognitive structures areused to process and identify incoming stimuli.Ausubel theorysof meaningful learning: according toausubel, meaningisa “ clearlyarticulatedand precisely differentiated conscious experiencethat emerges whenpotentiallymeaningful signs, symb

42、ols, concepts or propositions are related to and incorporated within a givenindividualcognitivesstructure on a non-articulatoryand substantivebasishuman”learning is ameaningfulprocess ofrelating new events or itemsto already existingcognitiveconcepts orpropositions. Meaningis thereforea process of r

43、elating and anchoring new materialto relevantestablished entities in the learner s cognitive structure. Meaningful learning takes place when thelearner has a disposition to relate the new material to what he already knows or when the learningtask is potentially meaningfulIf we can conceive of cognit

44、ive structure as a system of building blocks, then rote learning isthe process of acquiring isolated blocks with no particular function in the building of a structure,and therefore with no relationshipto other blocks. Meaningfullearning is the process wherebyblocks become an integral part of already

45、 established categories or systematic clusters of blocks.6、 What do you think of the different learning theories? What is your own view of human learning?Cognitive theories place greater store by the functioning of the mind, and postulate internal mental thinking as well as processes including perce

46、ption, memorizing and cognitive structures which can be acquired from learners experience and can modify their present behavior. Much greater emphasis is placed on learners being aware of the surroundings and being flexible in solutions they adopt.Chapter41. Is it easy for the child to acquire his m

47、other tongue? Why (not)?No, it is not easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue.First of all, he must segment the sound stream into meaningful units (words or phrases). This requires his ability to analyze. Then, he must combine them to arrive at the intended underlying propositions. This requ

48、ires his ability to synthesize.2. What questions must theories of L1 acquisition answer? Why?Psycholinguists who study child language are confronted with a more complex task thantheoretical linguists whose major concern is competence (i.e. the system of language) and sociolinguists whose major conce

49、rn is performance (i.e. the use of language). Psycholinguists have to be concerned with both competence and performance.Because they look at language from different angles, and because their purposes in the study of language are different.3. Sketch out Skinner s behavioristic theory of L1 acquisitio

50、n.Skinner behavioristic model is embodied in his classic Verbal Behavior. His theory ofverbal behavior is in fact an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other human behavior, is controlled by its consequences. When conseque

51、nces are rewarding the behavior is reinforced and maintained, andeven increased in strength and frequency. When consequences are punishing or when there is noreinforcement,the behavioris weakened and eventuallyextinguished.Therefore,effectivelanguage is the production of correct responses to externa

52、l stimuli. The L1 acquisition process isone in which the child s correct responses are repeatedly reinforced and finally a habit is formed.4. What are the main points of mediation theories? Why are they called mediation theories?Mediation theories are represented by O. H. Mowrer and C. E. Osgood. Th

53、eir goal is to fillthe “ black box ” with postulated internal psychological structures and processes in order to account for the observed behavior of organisms. They have developed a principle of mediated association,according to which two things associated with a third thing tend to be in associati

54、on with each other. Once the association is established, an internal link is built up even when the third thing is not present.They need media. The internal mediating response is considered to be an internal replication of a“ real ” response. From a behavioristic point of view, meaning is an interna

55、l replica of an external response.5. How do the nativist theories account for L1 acquisition?Nativist theories are represented by N. Chomsky, E. H. Lenneberg, and D. McNeill. Accordingto these theories, human babies are somehow predisposed to acquire a language. Lennebergcontends that language is a

56、species-specific behavior which is biologically determined. The child is born with the biological basis for the acquisition of language. Chomsky claims the existence ofa little black box which he calls the language acquisition device (LAD).He regards it as “ thegenetically determined language faculty ” ,“ an innate component of the human mind that yields aparticular language through interaction with presented experience.” McNeill describes four innatelinguistic properties of the LAD and sugg