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1、Chapter 2 GRAMMAR, MEANING, CONCISION.1. Most instances of meaning errors fall into one of three categories (three kinds)2. Help ing verbs3. The meaning of should4. Un der what circumsta nces should you chose a more con cise an swer?1. 1)choose your words 2) place your words 3) match your words2. He

2、lp ing verbs express various levels of certa in ty, obligati on, and reality, simply by swapp ing these verbs, the GMAT can completely cha nge the meaning of the sentence3. Should means moral obligati on ” not likelihood ”4. 1) If two choices are both grammatically correct and clear in meaning, but

3、one is more con cise tha n the other, the n choose the shorter one.2) Ano ther aspect of con cisi on is redu ndan cy. If a word can be removed withoutsubtract ingfrom the meaning of the sentence , it should be eliminated.Chapter 3 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT1. Three requireme nts for subject and verb in

4、a sentence2. How to ide ntify the subject and verb?3. Com mon types of middle men and warm-ups4. Additive phrases5. Or, eitheror & neither nor6. Collective nouns7. In defi nite pronouns8. 5 in defi nite pronouns that can be either sin gular or plural depe nding on the con text9. Each &every10. The n

5、umber of & a number of11. Majority &totality &plurality12. Subject phrase & clauses13. Subject in an in verted con struct ion14. Emergency1. 1) subject and verb must both exist 2) subject and verb must make sense together3)subject and verb must agree in nu mber2. 1)elimi nate the middleme n, and ski

6、p the warmup 2) use the structure to decide3. 1) prepositi onal phrases 2) subord in ate clauses 3) other modifiers 4) commas are ano ther help sig n4. only the word and can change a singular subject into a plural one. Singular subject followed by additive phrases rema in sin gular subjects.5. 1) If

7、 one of the nouns is singular and the other noun is plural , what verb form should be used? The answer is simple: find the noun nearest to the verb, and make sure that the verb agrees in nu mber with this noun.2) when the words either or neither are in sentence alone (without or or nor), they are co

8、n sidered sin gular and take only sin gular verbs.)6. In some rare circumstances, collective nouns can be considered plural (e.g., when you emphasize the in dividual actors, not their un ity or whe n there is a tip in non-un derl inedcon struct ion). However, on the GMAT, collective nouns are almost

9、 always con sideredsin gular and therefore require sin gular verb forms.7. Usually singular . An Indefinite Pronoun is not specific about the thing to which it refers. Note . that all the pronouns that end in -one, -body, or -hing fall into this category.8. A new noun in a prepositi onal phrase cann

10、ot be the subject of the senten ce,with limitedidiomatic excepti ons.There are, however, 5 in defi nite pronouns that can be either sin gular or plural depe nding on the con text of the senten ce. You can remember these 5 by the acronym SANAM.Look at the Of-phrase which usually follows the pronoun.

11、You may recall that you are gen erally supposed to ignore Of- preposti onal phrases (since they are misleadi ng middlema n). The SANAM pronouns are exceptions to this rule.9. Any subject preceded by the word each or every is singular.each following a subject has no bearing on the verb form.10. Singu

12、lar ; plural11. treat quantity phrases in the same way as SANAM pronouns: the noun in the Of-prepositional phrase will in dicate whether the verb is sin gular or plural.12. Always singular13. the GMAT occasi on ally attempts to con fuse you by inverting this order and placi ng the subject after the

13、verb . In sentences in which the subject follows the verb, flip the word order of the sentence so that the subject precedes the verb.14. You may have noticed that confusing subjects are more often singular than plural.When in Doubt, Think Sin gularChapter 4 PARALLELISM1. Two importa nt no tes for pa

14、rallelism2. Parallel makers (especially the three com mon conjunctions )3. Parallel clause should start with the same word4. The use of comma in the and con struct ion5. Do n ot assume that all verbs and verbal forms in a sentence must be parallel6. Watch out for linking verbs (treat any linking ver

15、b as parallel marker )1. 1) According to the principle of parallelism, comparable sentence parts must be structurally and logically similar.2)Notice that we do not gen erally have to make every word parallel in the parallel eleme nts. However, the most importa nt word must be parallel.2. and, but an

16、d or3. just remember4. No right answer omits and in a list just before the last item. Moreover, the GMAT always in serts a comma before the and in lists of 3 or 4 items. However, if you join 2 clauses with and, you can put an optimal comma before the and. Doing so is especially recommended when the

17、clauses are long, in depe ndent, or both .5. just remember6.To BeOther Linking Verbsisappearseemarebecomesmellwasfeelsou ndweregrowstayamlooktastebee nremai nturnbereprese ntbei ngresembleChapter 5 PRONOUNS1. The first thing you should do whe n you encoun ter a pronoun2. The properties of the an tec

18、ede nt that you are look ing for the pronoun3. The an tecede nt & pronoun must make sense together4. The an tecede nt must be un ambiguous (in a logical sen se)5. The an tecede nt & pronoun Must Agree in Number6. Pronoun case (some preferred rules, but not a hard-a nd-fast rule)7. The differe nee be

19、twee n it, they or other pers onal pronouns and that, those1. Just ide ntify the an tecede nt of the pronoun2. The an tecede nt must actually exist i n the sentence and be functioning as noun Watch out for nouns used us adjectives!3. Just remember4. Just remember5. Just remember6. a) Sometimes (thou

20、gh not always ), pronouns show a tendency to refer to nouns in the same case, especially when they are embedded in parallel structures. In particular, a pronoun in subject position in one clause may often be presumed to refer to the subject of a parallel clause, even if that subject is relatively fa

21、r away.b) Nouns in the possessive case(with s orare dften poor antecedents .7. when you use it, they or other personal pronouns , you mean the same actual thing as the an tecede nt.Those and that are not meaning the same thing, they just refer to the nouns.The GMAT insists that any “ NewCopy” that o

22、r those agree in number with the previous versi on.On the GMAT, do not use this or these in place of nouns. Also, do not use that or those in place of nouns (uni ess you modify that or those). Use it, they, or them in stead.Chapter 6 MODIFIERS1. what does adjective or adverbs modify?2. Two grammatic

23、ally correct phras ings which do n ot_mea n the same thi ng3. Pay particular attention to opening modifiers4. Positi on of noun modifiers5. Watch out for possessives, modifiers cannot no rmally modify in the possessive case6. Some importa nt no tes about the relative pronouns7. How to ide ntify and

24、choose betwee n an Esse ntial and a non-esse ntial noun modifiers8. Verb modifiers can be placed more freely than noun modifiers9. The differe nee betwee n which and prese nt participle1. An Adjective modifies only a noun or a pronoun, whereas an Adverb modifies almost anything but a noun or a prono

25、un.2. one phras ing might be , in which the two adjectivesbothmodify the noun. The other phrasing would be , in which the adverb modifies the adjective, which in turnmodifies the noun. These two phrasing do notmean the same thing. Pick the phrasing that reflects the author s intent3. Just remember4.

26、 A NOUN and its MODIFIER should TOUCH each other.(a preferred rule ,n ot absolutelyright ; there are some excepti ons)5. Just remember6. Clauses led by pronoun that cannot modify people.Surprisingly , the pronoun whose can modify either people or things.Who is used as the subject of the verb in a re

27、lative clause, whereas whom is used as the object of the verb or of a prepositi on.That or whom can be dropped when the modified noun is the object of the modifying clause.The pronoun where can be used to modify a noun place, such as area, site, country or Nevada. Where cannot modify a metaphorical

28、” place, such as condition, situation, case, circumsta nces, or argume nt. I n these cases, use in which rather tha n where.7. Put COMMAS between NON-ESSENTIAL modifiers and their nou ns.Put NO COMMAS between ESSENTIAL modifiers and their nou ns.Un dersta nd the logical meaning of the senten ce, and

29、 decide whether the modifier isesse ntial or non-esse ntial8. Just remember9. Use WHICH only to refer to the noun immediately precedi ng it -n ever to refer to anen tireclause.The -ng form is very flexible. It can modify nouns directly(e.g., the cha nging seas on s). It can modify verbs and their su

30、bjects (e.g., I lifted the weight, whistling ) It can even modify an en tire clause , as long as the en tire clause con verted into a noun phrase could fun cti on as the subject of the verb that is now in -ng form. This use of the -ng form works best whe n you want to express the result of the main

31、clause.Chapter 7 VERB TENSE, MOOD, & VOICE STRATEGY1. In any give n sentence you should try to keep all verb tense con siste nt, uni ess the meaning clearly dictates otherwise2. you can use the Past Progressive to describe a backgro und event, while you use Simple Past to describe a more importa nt

32、event in the foregro und3. Prese nt Perfect no tes /simple past4. Past perfect5. Do not use the perfect ten ses whe n the simple tense will do whe n the seque nee of time does not n eed to be clarified or emphasized.6. Avoid mixing Past tense with Future Tense7. The Hypothetical Subjunctive8. If the

33、 n con struct ion9. The comma nd subj unctive1. Just remember2. Just remember3. the Present Perfect indicates eithercontinued action or continued effect of acompleted action.If you use since, you must use the Present Perfect to indicate continued action or effect.（prep有见到since和过去完成时连用的，待考究）Likewise,

34、 Prese nt Perfect should be used with with in phrases, such aswith in the past five minu tes or with in the last ten days, to in dicate con ti nued action or continued effect.If you want to talk about a specific, completed time period , use the Simple Past, not the Prese nt Perfect.4. you should use

35、 Past Perfect only to clarify or emphasize a sequenee of past events . The earlier eve nt should somehow have a bearing on the context of the later event . Moreover, if the sequenee is already obvious , we often do not need Past Perfect.5. Just remember6. Just remember7. We use the Hypothetical Subj

36、unctive form in a few circumstances to indicate uniikely orun real con diti ons. Prin cipally, this form occurs after if, as if, or as though. The basic form of the Hypothetical Subjunctive is equivale nt to the Simple Past of every verb, with one exception. For the verb to be, the form were is alwa

37、ys used.8. Sentence that use the word if do not always use the Hypothetical Subjunctive(1) Gen eral Rule with no un certa intyIF Sophie EATS pizza, THEN she BECOMES ill.IF Present, THEN Present.This pattern is equivale nt to whe never. WHENEVER Sophie EATS pizza, she BECOMES ill.(2) Gen eral Rule wi

38、th some un certa intyIF Sophie EATS pizza, THEN she MAY BECOME illIF Present, THEN Can or May.Here, the help ing verb can or may can be used to allow for a somewhat un certa in outcome.(3) Particular Case (in the future) with no uncertaintyIF Sophie EATS pizza tomorrow, THEN she WILL BECOME ill.IF P

39、resent, THEN Future.(4) Un likely Case (in the future)IF Sophie ATE pizza tomorrow, THEN she WOULD BECOMEill.IF Hypothetical Subjunctive, THEN Conditional.Here, the writer thinks that Sophie is unlikely eat pizza tomorrow.(5) Case that Never Happe ned (in the past)IF Sophie HAD EATEN pizza yesterday

40、, THEN she WOULD HA VE BECOME ill.IF Past Perfect, THEN Conditional Perfect.Other patter ns are possible, but if these ntences that you encoun ter on the GMAT should conform to one of these five patter ns.The helping verbs would and should should NEVER go in the if part of the sentence!9. The Comma

41、nd Subjun ctive is used with certa in Bossy Verb , such as require or propose. Bossy Verbs tell people to do thingsTwo importa nt excepti ons: (1) there is no -S on the end for third pers on sin gular (2)the form of the verb to be is always just be, not is, are, or am.What makes the Comma nd Subj un

42、 ctive complicated is that not every Bossy Verb uses the Comma nd Subjun ctive. In fact, with some of the most com mon Bossy Verbs, such as warn , you cannot use the Comma nd Subjun ctive, but rather an infin itive (to + bare form)A few Bossy Verbs, most no tably prohibit, take other con struct ion

43、altogether:The Comma nd Subjunctive can also be used with nouns derived from Bossy Verbs, such as a dema nd or a request.Avoid the use of the Comma nd Subjun ctive after whether. This usage is old-fashi on ed.Chapter 8 COMPARISON1. Three steps to tackle with the comparis on problems2. The differe ne

44、e betwee n like and as3. Comparisons must be logically parallel and structurally parallel.4. You can also omit units, verbs, and even whole clauses from the second term, as long as there is no ambiguity5. Do n ot throw out an an swer choice simply because of anunn ecessary Help ing verb in thesec on

45、d term of a comparis on.1. 1) learn certain sign words or phrases 2)identify the two parts of the sentence that are being compared to each other 3) ensure that these two parts are truly parallel , both structurally and logically2. Like is a preposition. This means that LIKEmust be followed by nouns,

46、 pronouns, or noun phrases. Never put a clause or a prepositional phrase after like!On the other hand, as can be either a preposition (appearing with a noun) or a conjunction (appeari ng with a clause). You can correctly use as to compare two clauses. Aga in, however, you cannot use like to compare

47、clauses.3. Just remember4. Just remember5. Just rememberChapter 10 ODDS & ENDS1. Connecting words2. Comma3. Semico Ion4. Colo n5. Dash6. Three rules about Quan tity1. Coordin at ing conjunctions; subord in ator2. remember that non-essential modifiers are set off by commas, but essential modifiers ar

48、e not separated by commas.Do not use a comma before and to separate two verbs that have the same subject. Either elim in ate the comma or add a subject to the sec ond verb, creati ng a sec ond main clause.3. When you use a semico Ion, you should en sure that the two sentence parts are related in an

49、in depe ndent, bala need way . If it seems that the author origi nally meant to subord in ate one part to the other, you must preserve that intent.The semicoIon is often followed by a Coniunctive Adverb or other transition expression, such as however, therefore, or in additi on .In this way ,we can

50、modify the equal relati on ship that a bare semico Ion implies. Note that these tran siti onal eleme nts are not true conj un cti ons like and. As a result, you must use semico Ions, not commas, to join the sentence.A minor use of the semicoIon is to separate items that themselves contain commas.4.

51、The colon (:) provides further expla nati on for what comes before it.What comes before the colon must be able to sta nd alone as a sentence.Whatever n eeds expla natio n should be placed as close to the colon as possible.You can put a main clause after a colon as well. The key is that this clause m

52、ust explain what precedes the colon-perhaps the en tire precedi ng clause.5. The dash (-) is a flexible mark that the GMAT occasi on ally employs. You can use a dash as an emphatic comma, semicoIon or colon .You can also use the dash to restate or expla in an earlier part of the sentence . Un like t

53、he colon, the dash does not n eed to be immediately preceded by the part needi ng expla nati on.In short, you cannot really go wrong with a dash!6. Rule #1: Words used for countable things vs. words used for uncountable thingsIf you are un sure as to whether someth ing is coun table or not, perform

54、thecoun ti ng test.(just by trying to count them)Rule #2: Words used to relate two things vs. words used to related three or more things To relate two things ,you must use differe nt words from the words you use to relate three or more thi ngs. Remember that you must use comparative forms of adjecti

55、ves and adverbs(better, worse, more, less) to compare 2 things or people, but you must use superlative forms (best, worst, most, least) to compare 3 or more things or people.Rule #3: The Number or Number of versus A Number or The Number Of1) The number of is singular, and A number of is plural.2) Th

56、e nu mbers of is almost always in correct. Stick to the expressi on the nu mber of.3) However, nu mbers is possible in a few con texts. If you wish to make a comparison, use greater than , not more than (which might imply that the quantity of nu mbers is larger, not the nu mbers themselves)Rule #4:

57、In crease and Decrease vs. Greater and LessThe word in crease and decrease are not the same as the words greater and less. In crease and decrease express the cha nge of one thing over time . Greater and less signal a comparison between two things.Watch out for redu ndancy in sentences with the words

58、 in crease and decrease.Chapter11GMC/S-V/ PARALLELISM (ADVANCED )1. Specific patter ns of con cisi on2. Some circumstances that don “make it too short”3. Parallelism : con crete nouns vs. actio n nouns4. Simple gerund phrases5. Complex gerund phrases6. What else is con sidered parallel1. V- A- N = Verb Adje