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1、八路抢答器的PLC控制摘 要抢答器的定义,即在竞赛、文体娱乐活动(抢答活动)中,能准确、公正、直观地判断出抢答者的机器。在现今社会里,抢答器在娱乐节目、拍卖会等场合越来越得到重用,它可以帮助改善工作方式,方便思想的快速交流,使工作效率得到较大的提升。只要按一下按钮就能轻松的表达自己的想法,简单快捷。充分利用科学技术为生活服务,是现代社会发展的方向。实现抢答器功能的方式由多种,可以采用早期的模拟电路、数字电路或模数混合电路。近年来随着科技的飞速发展。单片机、PLC的应用不断地走向深入。同时带动传统的控制检测技术的不断更新。现介绍的就是一种利用日本三菱公司生产的型PLC作为核心控制器的八路抢答器系

2、统。给出了系统结构图、梯形图以及输入输出端子的分配方案。关键词:PLC ,抢答器,梯形图,设计 !所有下载了本文的注意:本论文附有CAD图纸和完整版最终设计,凡下载了本文的读者请留下你的联系方式(QQ邮箱),或加我百度用户名QQ,我把图纸发给你。最后,希望此文能够帮到你!ANSWER EIGHT-WAY PLC DEVICE CONTROLABSTRACTAnswers definition, that is, in the contest, style entertainment (Answer activities) in an accurate, fair and visually de

3、termine the machine Answer. In todays society, Answer in entertainment, the auction will be increasingly important and so on, it can help to improve the working methods to facilitate the rapid exchange of ideas, so that a greater work efficiency improved. Just click the button will be able to easily

4、 express their ideas, simple and quick. Make full use of science and technology services for the life of modern social development.Answer feature to achieve a combination of methods can be used early analog circuits, digital circuits or analog-to-digital hybrid circuits. In recent years, with the ra

5、pid development of science and technology. Single-chip, PLC applications to continue to depth. At the same time, the control of traditional detection technologies constantly updated. Are introduced is a production of Japans Mitsubishi FX2N-64MR-based PLC as the core of the eight-way controller syste

6、m Answer. The system structure diagram, ladder diagram, as well as the distribution of input and output terminal program. KEY WORDS: PLC,Answer devices,Ladder Diagram,Design目录前言1第1章 PLC的概述21.1 PLC定义21.2 PLC发展趋势21.3 PLC基本结构及原理3第2章 硬件电路设计62.1 抢答器的控制要求62.2 控制特点分析62.3 FX2N系列PLC硬件认识62.4 I/O口的分配及硬件接线图8第3章

7、 软件程序设计113.1 梯形图设计113.2 工作过程分析11结 论19谢 辞20参考文献21外文资料翻译22前言我想对于抢答器,大家都不会陌生吧,在我们的日常生活中处处可见,和我们的生活其实已经是密不可分了。如果我们仔细观察的话便会发现,无论是在学校、工厂、军队还是电视节目中, 都可能会举办各种各样的抢答竞赛, 甚至是选举投票,这些都关系到我们的切身利益,譬如学校要举办一场历史知识的竞赛,要求每个班挑选出若干个选手一起进行比赛,胜者可以得到丰厚的奖励,校方要求参赛选手个个反映迅速,总体知识要强,要求选手要在短短的时间内做出对题目的判断,而这其中就会遇到那方选手先答题的问题,以及答题的公正性

8、,如果单靠举手,那个争议太大了。必然会导致群众的不满,偏向有争议,本来有趣的比赛便会多了些不开心的因素,让人很不爽。但是抢答器的出现就使得这类的问题迎刃而解,不仅如此有了抢答器比赛将会更加的精彩美妙,不用担心比赛的公正性,我们可以放心的投入到比赛当中,尽情的展示我们的才华,释放出自我的激情来。而那些不和谐的声音将不会出现,想知道为什么吗,这就是抢答器的魅力,而下面的文章当中你便会了解到,为什么抢答器会有如此的神奇效果,其实这一切并不是很难,因为奇迹都是来自于自然,而伟大总是出自平凡。近年来随着科技的飞速发展, 单片机、PLC 的应用正在不断地走向深入, 同时带动传统的控制检测技术的不断更新。当

9、然抢答器的发展也是随着时代的前进不断的完善。它更加的美观,小型化,适用更多的需求,更能满足人们的日常生活要求。而且现在的抢答器精准度上的能力是大大的提高了。尤其是计算机的发展,使得抢答器已从原始的实体状态走进了软件化,有了更广泛的发展空间,更加的让人期待了。本设计利用PLC(日本三菱FX2N 64MR 型) 制作的8 路抢答器,该抢答器集抢答、声音警示、数码显示和答题计时于一体,借助较少的外围元件完成抢答器的基本功能。该设计编程简单,容易掌握,且工作稳定可靠,具有结构简单、可靠性好、经济省钱等特点。定能使得竞赛真正达到公正、公平、公开。 第1章 PLC的概述1.1 PLC定义PLC即可编程序控

10、制器是一类专门为在工业环境下应用而设计的数字式电子系统,它采用了可编程序的存储器,用来在其内部进行存储执行逻辑运算、顺序运算、定时、记数和算术运算等功能的面向用户的指令,并通过数字式或模拟式的输入或输出,控制各种类型的机械或生产过程。可遍程序控制器极其相关外部设备,都应按照易于与工业控制系统联成一个整体,易于扩展其功能的原则而设计。定义强调了PLC应直接应用与工业环境,它必须具有很强的抗干扰能力,广泛的适应能力和应用范围。这也是区别与一般微机控制系统的一个重要特征。定义还强调了PLC是“数字运算操作的电子系统”,他也是一种计算机,它是“专为在工业环境下应用而设计的”工业计算机。这种工业计算机采

11、用“面向用户的指令”,因此编程方便。它能完成逻辑运算、顺序运算、定时、记数和算术运算等操作,它还具有“数字量和模拟量输入和输出”的能力,并且非常容易与“工业控制系统联成一体”,易于“扩充”。 1.2 PLC发展趋势PLC总的发展趋势是向高集成度、小体积、大容量、高速度、易使用、高性能方向发展。具体表现在以下几个方面。1、向小型化,专用化,低成本方向发展2、向大容量,高速度方向发展3、智能型I/O模块的发展4、基于PC的编程软件取代编程器5、PLC编程语言的标准化6、PLC通信的易用化7、组态软件与PLC的软件化8、PLC与现场总线相结合9、开发新型特殊功能模块10、 CPU的处理速度进一步加快

12、目前,PLC的处理速度与计算机相比还比较慢,其高的CPU也不过80486,将来会全面使用64位的RISC芯片,采用多CPU进行处理、分时处理或分任务处理方式,将各种模块智能化,部分系统程序用门阵列电路固化,这样可使PLC的处理速度达到纳秒级。1.3 PLC基本结构及原理1、PLC的系统结构,目前PLC种类繁多,功能和指令系统也都各不相同,但都是以微处理器为核心用做工业控制的专用计算机,所以其结构和工作原理都大致相同,硬件结构与微机相似。主要包括中央处理单元CPU、存储器RAM和ROM、输入输出接口电路、电源、I/O扩展接口、外部设备接口等。其内部也是采用总线结构来进行数据和指令的传输。如图1-

13、1所示,PLC控制系统由输入量PLC输出量组成,外部的各种开关信号、模拟信号、传感器检测的各种信号均作为PLC的输入量,它们经PLC外部输入端子,作为PLC的输出量对外围设备进行各种控制。由此可见,PLC的基本结构有控制部分输入和输出组成。图1-1 PLC硬件结构图2、 PLC的工作原理,PLC采用的是循环扫描工作方式。对每个程序,CPU从第一条指令开始执行,按指令步序号做周期性的程序循环扫描,如果无跳转指令,则从第一条指令开始逐条顺序执行用户程序,直至遇到结束符后又返回第一条指令,如此周而复始不断循环,每一个循环称为一个扫描周期。PLC的扫描全过程如图1-2所示。(1) 输入刷新阶段在输入刷

14、新阶段,CPU扫描全部输入端口,读取其状态并写入输入状态寄存器。完成后关闭输入端口,转入程序执行阶段。(2) 程序执行阶段 在程序执行阶段,根据用户输入的控制程序,从第一条开始逐条执行,并将相应的逻辑运算结果存入对应的内部辅助寄存器和输出状态寄存器。(3) 输出刷新阶段当所有指令执行完毕后,将输出状态寄存器中的内容,依次送到输出锁存电路,并通过一定输出方式输出,驱动外部相应执行元件工作,这才形成PLC的实际输出。 图1-2 PLC的扫描全过程显然扫描周期的长短主要取决与程序的长短。扫描周期越长,响应速度越慢。由于每一个扫描周期只进行一次I/O刷新,即每一个扫描周期PLC只对输入、输出状态寄存器

15、更新一次,故使系统存在输入、输出滞后现象,这在一定程度上降低了系统的响应速度。由此可见,若输入变量在I/O刷新期间状态发生变化,则本次扫描期间输出会相应地发生变化。反之,若在本次刷新之后输入变量才发生变化,则本次扫描输出不变,而要到下一次扫描的I/O刷新期间输出才会发生变化。第2章 硬件电路设计2.1 抢答器的控制要求1、抢答器可同时供8组选手参加比赛;2、具有违规提示功能:只有在主持人发出开始信号, 选手才能开始抢答;3、具有抢答限时功能:在无人抢答及答题超时时设置提示信号; 4、具有数码显示功能:能显示抢答选手的编号及答题倒计时时间。2.2 控制特点分析由控制要求分析可知,首先,所设计的抢

16、答器要有8路的选择按钮,供8组选手用来抢答。其次,主持人拥有总控的能力,即具有开始权,而在此之前所有的抢答是不和规矩的,因此电路要有复位功能及识别功能,要能分辨出正常和违规的作用。再次,时间的概念,无人答题或答题超时要有表示,这就要求定时器的运用以及外部音响或指示灯的选择问题。最后,关于选手的认定也有要求,到底时那位选手,而选手之间不能有冲突,即一号抢了别的号就不能再抢答,这就要求设计电路要有互锁环节,要有LED显示识别等问题。2.3 FX2N系列PLC硬件认识1、FX2N系列PLC外部结构,FX2N系列PLC的硬件结构可以参考图2-1带扩展模块的PLC;该图为FX2N64MR的主机外形图,其

17、面板部件如图中注释。图2-1 FX2N系列PLC外表结构2、详细的I/O端子编号图图2-2 I/O 图4 I/O端子编号图由图4可知,外部接线端子包括PLC电源(,)端子,输入用直流电源(COM)端子,输入点(X),输出点(Y)和机器接地端子等。它位于机器两侧可拆卸的端子板上,每个端子均有对应的编号,主要完成电源 输入信号和输出信号的连接。输出侧左端4个点共用一个COM端,右边多输出点共用一个COM端。图2-2 /端子编号图3、系列型号含义,在PLC的正面,一般都有表示该PLC型号的文字符号,通过阅读该符号就可以获得该PLC的基本信息。FX系列PLC的型号命名基本格式:例如,本设计所使用的含义

18、为系列,输入输出点数为64点,继电器输出。2.4 I/O口的分配及硬件接线图1、根据设计要求,分析得出8路抢答器控制系统可分为5部分:2、PLC控制系统;3、抢答器按钮;4、信号灯;5、音响电路;6、显示部分它利用强大按钮输入各路的抢答信号,经PLC处理输出控制信号,控制数码管和音响提示电路。PLC的I/O端子分配图如表2-1所示。表2-1 I/O端子分配图元件名设备及作用X0-X7八路选手抢答器()X10复位按钮SB10X11开始强答按钮SB11X12答题记时开始按钮SB12Y0正常抢答绿色指示灯L1Y1违规抢答红色指示灯L2Y2无人抢答黄色指示灯L3Y3正常抢答(音响电路1)Y4违规抢答报

19、警(音响电路2)Y5无人抢答报警(音响电路3)Y6答题超时报警(音响电路4)Y10-Y16七段数码管1(a-g)Y20-Y26七段数码管2(a-g)Y30-Y36七段数码管3(a-g) 2、 根据控制要求,绘出硬件接线图,如图2-3所示。图2-3硬件接线图第3章 软件程序设计3.1 梯形图设计我们有了硬件接线图,然后我们需要将所有的输入输出口,通过一定的方式有效地联系起来,去达到我们要求的效果。这就需要相应的软件程序,PLC的程序有很多种,最常用的就是梯形图,它类似与电气控制的线路图,看起来很直观,便于理解很适合一线的技术工作人员,下面就是相应的程序控制梯形图,程序很好的解决了我们想要达到的效

20、果。系统控制部分及数码管1显示部分梯形图,如图3-1,3-2,3-3,3-4,3-5所示。3.2 工作过程分析1、每当主持人发出开始抢答指令(即按下X11按钮)后,那组选手最先按下抢答按钮,则数码管1就显示该组的编号,同时绿色指示灯亮,音响电路1给出音响提示信号(设持续3S),以指示抢答成功,并对其后的抢答信号不再响应,选手答题完毕后,由主持人按下复位按钮,系统才能开始下一轮抢答。2、违规抢答:若选手在未开始抢答时提前抢答了,则是为违规,违规时数码管1显示其编号,同时红灯亮音响电路2发出声响。3、抢答限时:当主持人按下开始抢答按钮后,定时器T0开始计时(设定时10S),若10S时限时仍无人抢答

21、,则黄灯亮,音响电路3发出声响,以示选手放弃该题。4、答题限时:在抢答成功后,主持人按下答题计时开始按钮SB12,秒脉冲辅助继电器开始工作,并利用响应的指令,使数码管2,3上显示答题倒计时,总时间是60秒,要求有10秒的倒计时,数码管2显示时间十位,数码管3显示时间个位,选手必须在设定时间内玩笑答题,否则,音响电路4发出答题超时报警信号。5、执行过程分析(1)正常抢答:PLC控制部分梯形图,当主持人按下SB11时,X11常开触点闭合,相当与线圈的辅助继电器M0得电,M0常开触点闭合,线路形成自锁,时间继电器T0得电,电路开始计时,时间为十秒。这时如果一号选手按下SB0,M1得电M1常开触点闭合

22、,相当与电机的Y0得电,Y0常开触点闭合,T1开始计时时间为3秒,绿灯亮,音响电路1响起,3秒后T1常闭触点断开,Y3失电音响停止,正常抢答结束。(2)违规抢答:PLC控制部分梯形图,当主持人没有按下SB11时,X11常开触点不动。M0未得电,M0的常闭触点仍然处于闭合状态,这时如果一号选手按下SB0,M1得电M1常开触点闭合, Y1得电,Y1常开触点闭合,T2开始计时时间为3秒,红灯亮,音响电路2响起,3秒后T2常闭触点断开,Y4失电音响停止,违规抢答结束。(3)无人抢答:PLC控制部分梯形图,当主持人按下SB11时,X11常开触点闭合,相当与线圈的辅助继电器M0得电,M0常开触点闭合,线路

23、形成自锁,时间继电器T0得电,电路开始计时,时间为十秒。这时如果没有选手按下SB0,M1未得电M1常闭触点仍然为闭合状态,十秒之后T0常开触点闭合,相当与电机的Y2得电,Y2常开触点闭合,T3开始计时时间为3秒,黄灯亮,音响电路3响起,3秒后T3常闭触点断开,Y5失电音响停止,无人抢答结束。(4)最先抢答:几个选手几乎同时按下按钮,如果一号选手最先按下了按钮,由于M1得电,M1常闭触点断开,其他的选手电路便无法导通了。而在这之前一号选手的电路已经导通了。(5)选手号显示:如果一号选手最先按下按钮,线圈M10得电,M10常开触点闭合,如数码管1显示部分梯形图,LED灯要求显示为“1”,要求b,c

24、处的输出端得电,即Y11,Y12得电。我们只需要将M10的常开触点与其相连即可实现显示,别的选手号码显示同理。(6)十秒倒计时:主持人按下SB12,X12常开触点闭合M2得电,M2常开触点闭合,如60秒答题控制梯形图,T4时间继电器得电先开始了50秒的答题时间。50秒之后,T4常开触点闭合T5时间继电器得电,计时时间为一秒,M18线圈得电。我们要求数码管2,数码管3上要显示出“10”的数字,表示第十秒。即数码管2的b,c端得电,数码管3的a,b,c,d,e端得电。只需将相应的输出端口与M18常开触点相连即可。道理同选手号码显示,T5计时到后,T5常闭触点断开,M18失电T5常开触点闭合,T6计

25、时器开始计时,时间为一秒。数码管2,3要显示“09”,道理同上。当T14时间继电器得电一秒后,十秒倒计时结束,T14常开触点闭合,T 15得电音响电路4得电,3秒后T15常闭触点断开,影响停止答题过程结束。 图3-1PLC控制部分梯形图 图3-2数码管1显示部分梯形图 图3-3 60秒答题控制梯形图图3-4 数码管2显示部分梯形图图3-5 数码管3显示部分梯形图结论本研究结果说明了,PLC可以实现抢答功能,而且过程简单,方便。能够准确,公正,直观地判断出抢答者的意图。我们可以使用PLC去设计八路抢答器,还可以用PLC去设计六路抢答器,四路抢答器。其道理是一样的,当然,不仅仅只限于抢答器,我们也

26、可以用其基本原理去设计其他的方案。抢答器关键解决了在几个选手同时抢答时,要求选手之间不能有冲突,所以设计电路要有互锁环节。主持人有总控权,电路要配备复位功能及识别能力。在显示选手问题及倒计时问题上,我使用了较为简单的方法。甚至将定时器时间分解到了秒,虽然理论上简单易懂,但是程序较长,不够简单,未使用高级命令。我认为像抢答器这类常用的设备,完全可以模板化,可以将其设计的更加灵活多样。如果要用的话,只需略微调试一下便可,这样不仅可以省去了时间,效率也会大大提高,更加方便我们的生活。谢 辞参考文献1 肖明耀,王国海可,编程控制技术,北京中国劳动社会保障出版社20042 吴明亮,蔡夕忠,可编程控制器实

27、训教程,北京化学工业出版社2005.63 ISBN 987-7-5083-5211-4 范永胜,王岷,电器控制与PLC应用,中国电力出版社,20074 ISBN 987-7-118-05872-7 王庭有等,可编程控制器原理及应用,国防工业出版社,2008.85 何强,4路抢答器的PLC程序设计,安徽水利水电职业技术学院学报200.6 李祥,周海涛,PLC设计在六路抢答器中的应用,科技咨询导报 20087 刘红, PLC在知识抢答器中的应用,科技咨询导,2007.NO.288 陈群,基于PLC的八路抢答器,电工技术2007,第12期 48-49页9 张桂香,机电类专业毕业设计指南J,北京:机械

28、工业出版社,2005.110 瞿大中,可编程控制与实验P,华中科技大学出版社,2002.12.11 殷建国,工厂电气控制技术M,北京:经济管理出版社,2006.9.12 齐占庆,机床电气控制技术G,北京:机械工业出版社,2006.1.13 余雷声, 电器控制与PLC应用M, 北京:机械工业出版社,1996:58-6314 程周,可编程控制器技术与应用M,北京:电子工业出版社,2002.8:99-10215 郁汉琪,郭健,可编程序控制器原理及应用M,北京:中国电力出版社,2004:88-9016 黄净,电气及PLC控制技术M,北京:机械工业出版社:7217 张万忠,孙晋,可编程控制器入门与应用实

29、例(三菱FX2N系列)M,北京:中国电力出版社,2005:86-98外文资料翻译MACHINABILITYThe machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors:1.Surface finish and integrity of the machined part;2.Tool life obtained;3.Force and power requirements;4.Chip control. Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integ

30、rity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone.Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to

31、establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in

32、 the example below.1 Machinability Of SteelsBecause steels are among the most important engineering materials, their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.Resulfurized and R

33、ephosphorized steels. Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of t

34、hese inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in resulfurized steels.Phosphorus in steels has two major effects. It strengthens the ferrite, causing increased hardness. Harder st

35、eels result in better chip formation and surface finish. Note that soft steels can be difficult to machine, with built-up edge formation and poor surface finish. The second effect is that increased hardness causes the formation of short chips instead of continuous stringy ones, thereby improving mac

36、hinability.Leaded Steels. A high percentage of lead in steels solidifies at the tip of manganese sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes the form of dispersed fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and aluminum and their alloys. Because of its low shear streng

37、th, therefore, lead acts as a solid lubricant (Section 32.11) and is smeared over the tool-chip interface during cutting. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentrations of lead on the tool-side face of chips when machining leaded steels.When the temperature is sufficiently hi

38、gh-for instance, at high cutting speeds and feeds (Section 20.6)the lead melts directly in front of the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant. In addition to this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, reducing cutting forces and power consumption. Lead can be used in every gra

39、de of steel, such as 10xx, 11xx, 12xx, 41xx, etc. Leaded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numerals (Note that in stainless steels, similar use of the letter L means “low carbon,” a condition that improves their corrosion resistance.)However, because lead is a well-k

40、nown toxin and a pollutant, there are serious environmental concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4500 tons of lead consumption every year in the production of steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend toward eliminating the use of lead in steels (lead-free steels). Bismuth and tin

41、 are now being investigated as possible substitutes for lead in steels.Calcium-Deoxidized Steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidized steels, in which oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSo) are formed. These flakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, decreasing to

42、ol-chip interface and wear. Temperature is correspondingly reduced. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds.Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to machine. Chatter can be s problem, necessitating machine tools with h

43、igh stiffness. However, ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinability. Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form a built-up edge, and require tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are strong a

44、nd abrasive, requiring hard and abrasion-resistant tool materials.The Effects of Other Elements in Steels on Machinability. The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful because these elements combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and abrasive. T

45、hese compounds increase tool wear and reduce machinability. It is essential to produce and use clean steels.Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) can produce poor surface finish by forming

46、 a built-up edge. Cast steels are more abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels. Tool and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing prior to machining. Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working, which hardens the material

47、 and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation.Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. The effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen can have partic

48、ularly detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen content, the lower the aspect ratio and the higher the machinability.In selecting various elements to improve machinabil

49、ity, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strength of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittlement of steels (liquid-metal embrittlement, hot shortness), although at room temperature it has no ef

50、fect on mechanical properties.Sulfur can severely reduce the hot workability of steels, because of the formation of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent such formation. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation of the d

51、eformed manganese sulfide inclusions (anisotropy). Rephosphorized steels are significantly less ductile, and are produced solely to improve machinability.2 Machinability of Various Other Metals Aluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades tend to form a built-up edge, resul

52、ting in poor surface finish. High cutting speeds, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought aluminum alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive; they require harder tool materials. Dimensional tolerance control may be a problem in machining alum

53、inum, since it has a high thermal coefficient of expansion and a relatively low elastic modulus.Beryllium is similar to cast irons. Because it is more abrasive and toxic, though, it requires machining in a controlled environment.Cast gray irons are generally machinable but are. Free carbides in cast

54、ings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating tools with high toughness. Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials.Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low

55、feeds and speeds.Wrought copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge formation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to machine, especially with the addition pf lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronzes are more difficult to machine than brass.Magnesium

56、 is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and prolonged tool life. However care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxidation and the danger of fire (the element is pyrophoric).Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening, so it can produce poor surface finish. Sharp tools are neces

57、sary.Nickel-based alloys are work-hardening, abrasive, and strong at high temperatures. Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels.Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile, and soft. It produces a poor surface finish; tool wear is high.Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (indeed, the lowest of all metals), causing significant temperature

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