语言学期末总结

1、第一章1. 语言的基本特征？ Design features of language? (p4-7) Arbitrariness, Duality, Creativity and Displacement2. Arbitrariness 的三层含义？ Whats the three different levels of Arbitrariness?the relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning is arbitrarylanguage is not arbitrary at the syntactic leve

2、l, in other words, syntax is less arbitrary than wordsconventionality is the other side of the coin of arbitrariness.3. Duality 和Displacement的定义？ (p5)By DUALITY is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary le

3、vel and each of the two levels has its own principles of organizations.4. 语言的功能？ Functions of language?（p9） Informative, function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual function. 5. Performative的定义？（p11）The performative

4、function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, the kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.6. Main branches o

5、f linguistics? (p15)Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.7. Psycholinguistics? (p18)PSYCHOLINGUISTICS investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example. In the psycholinguistic study of gramm

6、ar, the psycholinguistic constraints on the form of grammar are examined. It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundations of language; and a profound aspectthe relationship between language and cognition.8. Important Distinction

7、s in Linguistics 中各分点的定义？ (p19)9. 1.9.3 Langue& Parole (p21)10. Saussure 现代语言学的开山鼻祖11. Chomsky 美国语言学家，转换-生成语法的创始人第二章12. 语音学研究的三个领域 ？ the three main areas of the study of sounds( Phonetics)?（p24）Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic Phonetics is the study of

8、the physical properties of speech sounds.Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the percecption of speech sounds.13. 元音与辅音的区别? The distinction between consonants and vowels? （p29）Consonants are produced” by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air canno

9、t escape without producing audible friction”. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such” stricture” so that” air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose”. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.14. 发音方式与发音位置? The manner and the

10、place of articulation? （p3031 已划出）The manner of articulation: there are 8t manners of articulation. Stop( or Plosive), Nasal, Fricative, Approximant, Lateral, Trill, Tap and Flap, Affricate. The place of articulation: there are 11 places of articulation. Bilabial, Labiodental, Dental, Alveolar, Post

11、alveolar, Retroflex, Palatal, Velar, Uvular, Pharyngeal, Glottal15. 记忆所有元音、基础元音（CARDINAL VOWELS） （p3336 坐标法）16. 记忆辅音（辅音表） （p35 Table 2.1）17. 了解RP, GA （p36 Table 2.3）18. 元音的四个指标? The four basic requirements of the description of English vowels? （p37 已划出）the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low).t

12、he position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back).the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short).lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).19. 辅音的指标20. Coarticulation 的两个分类? （p38 已划出）If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lanmb, it

13、 is known as Anticipatory Coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is Perseverative Coarticulation, as is the case of map.21. 超音段的四个主要特征? The four principal suprasegmentals?（p49 已划出）Syllable Structure, Stress, Intonation, Tone.22. 一个音节由哪两个部分构成? （p50 已划出）We can divi

14、de a syllable into two parts, the Rhyme ( or Rime) and the Onset.23. 英语前面最多允许多少个辅音？在结尾最多允许 (p50 已划出)The onset position may be empty or filled by a cluster of as many as three consonants, while the coda position may be filled by as many as four consonants (as in sixth) 第三章24. 词的三层含义? Three senses of“

15、 word”? （p55 3.11 的三个小标题）A physical definable unitWord both as a general term and as a specific termA grammatical unit25. How to ideatify word? （p57 三个标准，三个小标准）Stability, Relative Uninterruptibility, A minimum free form26. 词的分类? Classification of words? (p58)Variable and invariable wordsGrammatical

16、words and lexical wordsClosed-class words and open-class wordsWord class27. Variable/ invariable words 各自的概念 （p58）Variable words: variable words may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. Invariable words

17、: invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.28. Grammatical words 和 lexical words 各自的概念 (p58)Grammatical words: words which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical wo

18、rds, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Lexical words: words which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words. Lexical words carry the main content of a language while grammatical ones serve t

19、o link together different content parts, so lexical words are also known as CONTENT WORDS and grammatical ones as FUNCTION WORDS.29. Morpheme 的概念 (p61)Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further sma

20、ller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.30. 最小的发音单位 phoneme（了解）31. Types of Morphemes (p62)Morphemes can be sub-classified into different types, depending on what criteria you attempt to follow.Free morpheme and bound morpheme: if the w

21、ord may occur aloneRoot, affix and stem: poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixesInflectional affix and derivational affix: concerned with affixes only32. Root, affix, stem各自的概念 (p6263)Root: root is the base form of a word that cannot ba further be analyzed wit

22、hout destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. Affix: affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so it is naturally bound. Stem: stem is any morp

23、heme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It may be the same as a root, whereas the latter indicates that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.33. 理解前、中、后缀34. 区别inflectional affix 和derivational affix (p6364 三点)These two types of

24、affix have three differences:First, inflectional affixed are generally less productive that dericational affixes: they are often only add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivationalaffixes are very

25、productive in making new words. Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might or might not. Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.35. 弄清什么是endocentric compound? (p66) 36. Sememe, morpheme, phoneme各自的定义 （p68）Se

26、meme: SEMEME is the smallest component of meaning.Morpheme: MORPHEME is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether if is lexical or

27、 grammatical. Phoneme: PHONEME is the smallest meaningful unit of sound and morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar.37. 七种造词方式 Lexical Change Proper（p73 3.3.1 可能有单词与其构成法的连线， 搞清相关概念） Invention, Blending, Abbreviation, Acronym, Back- formation, Analogical creation, Borrowing.第四章38. 句法的关系? Sentactic r

28、elations? (p84 三种)Positional relation: POSITIONAL RELATION, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequentialarrangement of words in a language. Relation of substitutability: RELATION OF SUBSTITUTABILITY refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same s

29、tructure. Relation of Co- occurrence: By the relation of CO- OCCURRENCE one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.39. 句法分析中word level 的几个符号 （p88 学会运用，记住Ex.4-8 表中的句子即

30、可） Word- level Phrasal N = noun NP = noun phrase A = adjective AP = adjective phrase V = verb VP = verb phrase P = preposition PP = preposition phrase Det = determiner S = sentence or clause Adv = adverb Conj = conjunctionS NP VP Det N V NPDet NThe boy ate the appleThe boy ate the apple40. Coordinat

31、ion 和Subordination的概念 （p90）Coordination: COORDINATION is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or. This phenomenon isknown as coordination. Subordination: SUBOR

32、DINATION refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinateconstituents are words which modify the Head, as shown in the underlinedparts of the cons

33、tructions( page 91). Consequently, they can be calledmodifiers.41. 4.4.1 Number (p96)NUMBER is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. in English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular

34、 and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men. In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.42. 中英的Gender区别 (p97 你妳 他她)43. Case

35、的中英对比Agreement的中英对比 （p9798）44. 七大句子结构类型 seven sentence types according to grammatical functions of the constituents involved in a sentence（p101）(a) Type SVC Mary is kind. (a nurse)(b) Type SVA Mary is here. (in the house)(c) Type SV The child is laughing.(d) Type SVO Somebody caught the ball.(e) Typ

36、e SVOC We have proved him wrong. (a fool)(f) Type SVOA I put the plate on the table.(g) Type SVOO She gives me expensive presents.45. 4.6.2从句的类型 （p102）The three basic types of subordinate clause are complement, adjunct (or adverbial) and relative clauses.46. 4.7.2 Cohesion的六种手段 Six cohesive devices（

37、p103）Conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution第五章47. Leech提出的七种意义? 7 types of meaning in Leechs Semantics?(p105)1. Conceptual meaningLogical, cognitive, or denotative contentAssociative meaning2. Connotative meaning3. Social meaning4. Affective meaning5.

38、 Reflected meaning6. Collocative meaningWhat is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/ writer.What is communicated through association with another sense of

39、the same expression.What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.7. Thematic meaningWhat is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.48. 用自己的话解释Referential Theory (p107)49. Sense Relations (

40、p109)Synonymy: synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation.Hyponymy: the term HYPONYMY is of recent creation, which has not found its way to some small dictionaries yet. But the notion of meaning inclusiveness is not new. In other

41、 words, hyponymy is amatter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation is called SUPERORDINATE, and the lower terms, the members, HYPONYMYS.50. 重点是antonymy (p110)There are three main sub- types of antonymy: Gradable antonymy: this is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly ad

42、jectives. And they have three characteristics. First, they are GRADABLE. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. They may have comparative and superlative degrees. They may be expressed by separare words rather than b

43、y adding modifiers. Second, antonymys of this kind are graded against different norms. Third, one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term. Complementary antonymy: in contrast to the first type, the members of a pair in this type are complementary to each ot

44、her. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. To some extent, the difference between the gradable and the complementary can be compared to the traditional logical distinction between the contrary and the contradictory. Firstly, in logic, a proposition is the contrary of anothe