英语写作PPT展示Refutation.ppt

,Refutation,What,How,Example,Refutationisthepartofanargumentwhereinaspeakerorwriteranticipatesandcountersopposingpointsofview.,InformallogicAnobjection(alsocalledexpostulationorrefutation),isareasonarguingagainstpremise,lemma,ormaincontention.,Greco-Romans,Truthdoesnotfearcontention.Themorethetruthisdebated,thecleareritbecomes.,PlatoAsummaryoftheargumentyouarerefuting;Anacknowledgeofthestrengthsoftheargument,ifany;Theaspectsoftheargumentthatyoubelieveareflawed;,Howto,WriteIntroduction,Howto,WriteIntroduction,2.BecharmingYoucanwintheattentionandgoodwillofyourreadersbytellinganinterestingstory,quotingagoodcommentontheissue.Youshouldavoidpomposity,andshowconcernforyourreaders.Youshouldpresentyourselfasfair-mindedandgood-natured.,HowtowriteIntroduction,HowtowriteBody,HowtowriteConclusion,Howwe,writeRefutation,Whatopposingargumentscanbeattacked,Threetypesoforganization,Fourstepsinrefutation,Languageofrefutation,Howto,Writebody,Argumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidence,Attacksonevidence,Attacksonreasoning,Attacksonclaims,Twobroadtestsofevidenceare:Istheevidencecorrect?Istheevidenceadequatetoprovetheargument?,AttacksOnevidence,ThenextMoreparticularcriteriafortestingevidence,22,So-calledAuthorityleansonthepopularityofsomeonewhomayhavelittleknowledgeoftheissueorproduct.Example:CNNsLouDobbs,regularlyusesafigureof20millionwhendiscussingthenumberofillegalaliensonhisbroadcastLouDobbsTonight.“However,thePEWCenter,amoreobjectivesourceplacesthenumberat11million.,AttacksOnevidence,23,Flawedstatisticaldatasmallsampleandspecialsample;thetotalnumberofsamplesisunknown;Example:Therewere13gun-relatedfatalitiesamongchildreneveryday,butdidnttelltheexactagerange.,AttacksOnevidence,24,Ignorethechangeofconditionswithoutconsideringthechangeoftime,spaceandotherexternalconditionswhichmayleadtothealterationofevidence.Example:ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinworldWarIIthanatomicweapons,soconventionalweaponsaremorelethal.However,itsundertwodifferentcircumstances.,AttacksOnevidence,25,SuppressedevidencehidesomeaspectswhichisagainsttheclaimExample:Anadvertisementclaimsaparticularcarhasmorehorsepowerand0-60speed,butfailstomentionitalsodoesworseincrashtests,andhasworsereliability.,AttacksOnevidence,26,Self-contradictoryevidenceIfyousayorwritesomethingthatisself-contradictory,youmaketwostatementswhichcannotbothbetrue.Example:BushhasblockedprescriptiondrugimportsfromCanadaoversafetyconcerns,buthealsosaidtheU.S.couldrelyonCanadaformorefluvaccine.,AttacksOnevidence,27,Negativeevidencetheevidenceisnotrightormoralinacivilizedsociety,isevil-minded,immatureviciousorharmful,issexistordiscriminatory,orculturallyunacceptable.Example:ItsnotnecessarytoabolishdeathpenaltyinChinabecausethepopulationofChinaissolarge.However,itsevil!,AttacksOnevidence,28,AtypicalevidencetheevidenceisnottypicaltoprovetheclaimExample:Anadforamiracledietofferstestimonialsasproof,butfailstoprovideacontrolledclinicalstudytoprovethedietreallyworks.,AttacksOnevidence,29,Argumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidence,Attacksonevidence,Attacksonreasoning,Attacksonclaims,HastygeneralizationsArrivingataconclusionwithoutenoughevidence.Example:LiHuaandWangPing,whoaretwoAsian-Americanstudents,dowellinmath,soallAsian-Americanstudentsarebetterinmath.,AttacksOnreasoning,31,BandwagonThinkingClaimingthatmostpeopleagreesoitmustberight.Example:ItswidelyacceptedthatFrenchpeoplearemoreromantic,soFrenchmustberomantic.,AttacksOnreasoning,32,Singlecause-effectClaimingthatonlyoneeventcausedanother.Example:WhenIsatdownatthecomputeritstoppedworking,soImusthavedonesomethingwrong.,AttacksOnreasoning,33,NoconnectionThecausedoesnotrelatetotheeffect.Example:LetsnottakeXiaoJingtengonourpicnic.Everytimewetakehimoutwithus,itrains.,AttacksOnreasoning,34,Either/OrSuggestingonlytwoalternativeswhiletheissuemaybemuchmorecomplex.Example:Bush:“eitheryoureforAmericaoryourefortheterrorists”,AttacksOnreasoning,35,CircularReasoningRestatingindifferentwordswhathasalreadybeenstated.Example:Xiaomingisabachelorbecausehehasntgotmarried.,AttacksOnreasoning,36,FalseAnalogyTheargumentassertsthatiffactsrelatingtoAandfactsrelatingtoBarealikeinsomeessentialrespects,theywillbealikeinanother,orother,essentialrespects.Example:Studentsshouldbeallowedtolookattheirtextbooksduringexaminations.Afterall,surgeonshaveX-raystoguidethemduringanoperation,lawyershavebriefstoguidethemduringatrial,carpentershaveblueprintstoguidethemwhentheyarebuildingahouse.,AttacksOnreasoning,37,1.Sequentialattack（argument1-argument2-argument3）,Whatopposingargumentscanbeattacked,Threetypesoforganization,Fourstepsinrefutation,Languageofrefutation,Howwe,Writebody,38,2.Primaryandsecondaryattacks,Threetypesoforganization,Howwe,Writebody,refutationofprimaryargumentrefutationofsecondaryargument,3.Concessiontypeattack,TomakethebodypartcoherentandconsistentRebuttalofAisnotnecessarilytobethefirst,butitscriticaltofindoutthelogicalconnectioninthewholeoriginalarticletoberefuted,40,VideoExamplesVideo1Video2,Threetypesoforganization,41,1.Theargumenttoberefutedanditsrelationshiptothecaseasawhole.,Howwe,Writebody,Example:Indevelopinganeedforpricecontrols,theeffectofinflationhasbeeninjurioustothewelfareoftheAmericanlaborer.Now,ifthisweretrue,theaffirmativewouldindeedhaveastrongargument.,Whatopposingargumentscanbeattacked,Threetypesoforganization,Fourstepsinrefutation,Languageofrefutation,42,2.Statehowyouwillrefutetheargument.,Example:However,itcanbedemonstratedthattheaffirmativehasreachedanerroneousconclusionbyneglectingthemostrelevantaspectsoftheUnitedStateseconomicpicture.,43,3.Refutationwithsupportingevidence.,Example:HastheUnitedStateslaborerbeenhurtbyinflation?Onthecontrary,accordingtotheSecretaryoftheTreasury,hisbuyingpowerhasgoneupfortypercentinthepasttwentyyears,andaccordingtoastudyconductedbythelabororganizationsthemselves(AFL-CIOreport),“Thelaborer,eventhoughpriceshavegoneup,stillisinapositiontobuymoreofthedesiredgoodsonthemarketthaneverbefore.”,44,4.Theeffectoftherefutationandtransitiontocontinuedrefutation.,Example:Thusweseethattheaffirmativeneedargument,anappealtothewelfareoflabor,isrefutedbythelaborleadersthemselves.Now,letusproceedtotheirotherneedargumentstoseeiftheyarerealorlargelyimaginary.,45,Makethemeansofcommunication-language-asclearaspossible.AvoidvaguetermsUsethevocabularyofdebatebyreferringtoissues,arguments,andevidence.,Howwe,Writebody,Whatopposingargumentscanbeattacked,Threetypesoforganization,Fourstepsinrefutation,Languageofrefutation,46,【Avoid】Thepointhasbeenbroughtup.【Because】Vague.Callingeverythingapoint,whetheritisanissue,andargument,orevidence,isprobablythemostcommonlanguageerrorindebate.Byitselfitisvague;whenitisoveruseditleadstototalconfusion.【Useinstead】“Thecontentionofworkabilityhasbeenattackedwiththeargumentthat”,【Avoid】“Asourquoteshaveproved”【Because】Vague.Beconcretebymakingspecificreferences.【Useinstead】“Ontheotherhand,bothProfessorX,ofWhiteUniversity,andtheDirectoroftheNationalScienceFoundationhaveproved”,【Avoid】“Theysaid”or“Wesaid”【Because】Vagueandclumsy.【Useinstead】“Thefirstaffirmativespeakerasserted”or“MissSmith,inherfirstconstructivespeech”,【Avoid】“Westandon”【Because】Clumsy.【Useinstead】“Oursupportofthiscontentionhasbeen”,【Avoid】“Whereistheirproof?”and“Wehaveofferedproof.”【Because】Clumsyanderroneous.Proofisoftenconfusedwithevidence.【Useinstead】“Whereisthesupportingevidencetoprove”and“Wehaveofferedevidencetosupport”,Bonus!,Typicallanguageusedinrefutation,Althoughitiscommonlyheldthatsuccesswillbringpeoplemoneyandstatus,itisunlikelytobetruethatitwillbeadesirablegoalforanyone.Consideringthegreatstresstheyhavetolivewith,andtheirshorterlifespans,greaterloneliness,andrelativeincapacityforcommunityorloveitentails,itisconceivablethatnoteveryonefindsanenterpriserequiringsuchsacrificeisworthwhatitcosts.虽然大多数人认为成功能给人带来金钱和地位，但是每个人都渴望成功却不一定是事实。想一想为了成功所要承受的紧张压力，寿命的可能缩短，巨大的孤独，不能有常人的感情交流和爱情。可以想象，不是所有的人都认为为追求一个目标付出这么多的牺牲是值得的,Itisprobablytruethatinstitutingsanctionsmaysignificantlyreducethefrequencyofwrongspeechesoncampus,butonevitalpointisbeingleftoutofourthinking:thesemeasuresposeaseriousthreattotheveryideaoftheuniversityandthespiritofacademicfreedom.采取制裁措施可能会显著地减少校园的“错误”言论，但是有一点我们没有考虑进去：这些措施对大学的本身宗旨以及学术自由精神构成了威胁。,Typicallanguageusedinrefutation,Onthesurface,thecommentsmadebymenaboutwomensabilitiesseemreasonable.Butoncloseexamination,thecommentsrevealtherealcontemptthatmenfeelforwomenandthebasichostilitythatmenhavetowardwomen.表面上，男人对妇女的能力所作的评论似乎有点道理，但仔细检查一下，这个评论反映了男人对妇女的真正蔑视和对妇女的态度基本上是对立的。,Typicallanguageusedinrefutation,Somepeoplesuggestthatamanagerorahighexecutivecanspeakwellandlogicallybecauseoftheopportunitiesofhisposition.Thatisputtingthecartbeforethehorse.Moreoftenthannot,quitethereverseistrue.Itishisskillinwordsthathelpshimtogethisjob.Thatis,ifyouconsciouslyincreaseyourvocabularyyouwillunconsciouslyraiseyourselftoamoreimportantstationinlife.Ofcourse,thenewandhigherpositionyouhavewonwill,inturn,giveyouabetteropportunityforfurtherenrichingyourlanguage.Itisabeautifulandsuccessfulcycle.有的人说一个经理或一个高级管理人员之所以口才好，讲话有逻辑是因为他的职位给他创造了这样的条件。这就有点本末倒置了。许多情况下，事实正好相反。他的词语能力正好帮助他获得了他的这个职位。也就是说如果你注意扩大你的词汇，你就会在无意中提高生活中的地位。当然你得到的一个新的更重要的职位会反过来为你进一步丰富你的语言创造好的条件。这是一个良性的成功的循环。,Typicallanguageusedinrefutation,HowtowriteIntroduction,HowtowriteBody,HowtowriteConclusion,Howwe,writeRefutation,Howto,writeconclusion,4.Statisticalfindings:datashowinghowmuch,howmany,orhowoftencanbeconvincing.5.Personalexperiencesorobservations:Sometimestheycandeliveranargumentativemessagemoreforcefullythananyotherkindofevidence.Personalexperienceusuallyreinforcesbutdoesnotreplaceotherkindsofevidences.,HowtoendRestartyourthesisindifferentwaysLookintothefutureMakefunofyouropponentsSummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislong,HowtowriteconclusionRestateyourthesisindifferentwaysLookintothefutureMakefunofyouropponentsSummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislong,TipsforYourEssay,DontmakeupevidenceCiteyoursourcesMakeanoutline,AvoidemotionallanguageKnowthedifferencebetweenalogicalconclusionandanemotionalpointofview,What,How,Example,Toomuch,Concepts!,Istrike!,P,P,T,61,Asampleessay,so,Thenextoneis,Natureexamineswhetherandhowanathletesperformancehistoryandthelimitsofhumanphysiologycouldbeusedtocatchdopers.,sampleessay,Yesperformancewasanomalous(异常)withanimprovementabout7seconds(6.72s).Acleandrugtestduringcompetitioncouldnotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping(兴奋剂).Performancecouldbeusedtonabdopers.Anathletewillbedisciplinedsimplyforperformingtoowell.,OUTLINEOFREFUTATION,IntroductionBody1.Refute:thedataof“7seconds”2.Refute:“anomalous”improvement3.Refute:compareRyanLochteslast50metrestoYes4.Refute:anotherexampleofcherry-picking5.Refute:adrugtestcannotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping6.Refute:Callawayfailedtomentionout-of-competitiondrugtestConclusion,IntroductionpartFROMLAIJIANG,DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofPennsylvania,ItisashametoseeNaturewhichnearlyallscientists,includingmyself,regardasoneofthemostprestigiousandinfluentialphysical-sciencemagazinespublishathinlyveiledbiasedarticlelikethis.Granted,thisisnotapeer-reviewedscientificarticleanddidnotgothroughthescrutinyofpickingreferees.Buttoserveasachannelforthegeneralpopulacetobeintouchwithandappreciatescience,theauthorsandeditorsshouldatleastpresentthereaderswithfactswithinthepropercontext,whichtheyblatantlyfailedtodo.,Background/Hook,Bodypart,First,toidentifyYesperformanceincrease,EwenCallawaycomparedherOlympic400-metreIMtimewithherperformanceattheWorldChampionshipsin2011(4:28.43and4:35.15,respectively)andconcludedthatshehadan“anomalous”improvementofaround7seconds(6.72s).Infact,herpreviouspersonalbestwas4:33.79attheAsianGamesin2010.Thisleadstoanimprovementof5.38seconds.Inasportingeventinwhich0.1scanbethedifferencebetweenthegoldandsilvermedal,Iseenoreasonfor5.38stobetreatedas7s.,Reviewthewrongfacts,Listfacts,Yourargument,Effectofyourrefutationonopponentscase,p1,Bodypart,Second,aspreviouslypointedout,Yeisonly16yearsoldandherbodyisstilldeveloping.Betteringoneselfby5secondsovertwoyearsmayseemimpossibleforanadultswimmer,butitcertainlyhappensamongyoungsters.AninterviewwithAustraliangoldmedallistIanThorperevealedthathis400-metrefreestyletimeimprovedby5secondsbetweentheagesof15and16.Forregularpeople,includingCallaway,itmaybehardtoimaginewhataneliteswimmercanachieveasheorshematuresandundergoesscientificandpersistenttraining.Butjumpingtotheconclusionthatitis“anomalous”basedonOhthatssotoughIcannotimagineitisrealishardlysound.,Listfacts,Yourargument,Effectofyourrefutationonopponentscase,p2,Bodypart,Third,tocompareRyanLochteslast50metrestoYesisatextbookexampleofcherry-pickingyourdata.Yes,LochtewasslowerthanYeinthelast50metres,butLochtehadahugeleadinthefirst300metres,sohechosenottopushhimselftoohardandtoconservehisenergyforlater.Ye,ontheotherhand,wastrailingbehindafterthefirst300metresandreliedonfreestyle,inwhichshehasanedge,towintherace.Failingtomentionthisstrategicdifference,aswellasthefactthatLochteis23.25secondsfaster(4:05.18)thanYeoverall,createstheillusionthatawomanswamfasterthanthebestmaninthesamesport,whichsoundsimpossible.Puttingasidethegenderargument,Ibelievethisisstillaleadingquestionthatimpliestothereaderthatthereissomethingfishygoingon.,cherry-picking,Listfacts,Yourargument,Effectofyourrefutationonopponentscase,p3,Bodypart,Fourthisanotherexampleofcherry-picking.Inthesameevent,therearefourmaleswimmerswhoswamfasterthanbothLochter(29.10s)andYe(28.93s)inthefinal50metres:KosukeHagino(28.52s),MichaelPhelps(28.44s),YuyaHorihata(27.87s)andThomasFraser-Holmes(28.35s).Asitturnsout,ifwearejusttalkingaboutthelast50metresina400-metreIM,LochterisnottheexampleIwouldhaveusedifIweretheauthor.WhatkindofscientificrigorousnessisCallawaytryingtodemonstratehere?IsitlogicalthatifLochteristhechampion,weshouldassumethatheleadsineverysplit?Thatwouldbeaterriblewaytoteachthepublichowscienceworks.,cherry-picking,Listfacts,Yourargument,Effectofyourrefutationonopponentscase,p4,Bodypart,FifthistheissueIopposethemost.CallawayquotesRossTuckerandimpliesthatadrugtestcannotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping.Anyonewhohastakenquantum101willtellyouthateverythingisprobabilisticinnature,andsothereisaprobabilitythatthedruginanathletessystemcouldtunneloutrightatthemomentofthetest.Aslightchanceitmaybe,butshouldwedisregardalltestresultsbecauseofit?Letsbepracti