杜昶旭托福阅读课讲义.doc

Reading ComprehensionIBT TOFEL 怎样的考试和怎样的我们. 托福考试的本质探求对”Test of English as a Foreign Language”的再认知n 托福到底有多难？u 习惯的说法：高考六级考研托福SATGREGMATLSATu 用合理的方式进行难度的评价n 从“OF”到“IN”u Test OF English：“对”英语的测试l TOEFL (Test Of English as a Foreign Language)l IELTS (International English Language Testing System)l TOEIC (Test Of English for International Communication)l CET-4 (College English Test-Band 4)l CET-6 (College English Test-Band 6)l PETS (Public English Test System)u Test IN English：“用”英语的测试l GRE (Graduate Record Examination)l GMAT (Graduate Management Admission Test)l SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test)l LSAT (Law School Admission Test)l NCEE (National College Entrance Examination)l NGEE (National Graduate Entrance Examination)n 托福作为语言考试的本质u 测试考生对英语的综合应用能力包括听、说、读、写的独立能力和综合能力；u 测试考生在实际的学习、生活过程中的语言应用能力所有测试内容均与实际结合；u 考生的英语水平与分数具有直接相关性零基础测试假设；u 包含且仅包含语言使用过程中的所有因素词汇、句子、语篇、语境、交流方式。 托福考试的本质探求从形式特征到内容特征The TOFEL IBT Reading section includes 3 to 5 reading passages, each approximately 700 words long. There are 12 to 14 questions per passage. You have from 60 to 100 minutes to answer all questions in the section. (Official Guide .p.19)Most questions are worth 1 points but the last question in each set is worth more than 1 points. The directions indicate how many points you may receive. (Reading section directions in actual test)n 托福阅读的形式特征u ETS所阐述的形式l 文章数量：或篇这样安排是为了为了匹配时间，的考生希望遇到l 考试时间：每篇文章分钟l 文章长度：字左右l 题目数量篇l 每题原始分数：最后一题分，其他题目分l 分值范围：标准分分（分数对应规则参照新托福官方指南页）我们的实际情况：我们的听说读写都一样差，我们认为自己阅读能力强幻觉。或者都一样，而且，其中只有或者个段子是算分的。（篇中有两篇并不算分，但是我们都不知道是哪两篇）l 时段划分：个（分分）或个（分分分）；The Reading section is divided into separately timed parts. (Reading section directions in the actual test )A clock in the top of the screen will show how much time to available to answer these questions.(Reading section direction in the first model test)Within each part, you can go to the next question by clicking Next. You may skip question and go back to them later. If you want to return to previous questions, click on Back. You can click on Review at any time and the review screen will show you which questions you have answered and which you have not answered. From this review screen, you may go directly to any question you have already seen in the Reading section. (Reading section directions in the actual test)Some passages include a word or phrase that is underlined in blue. Click on the word or phrase to see a definition or an explanation. (Reading section directions in the actual test)You have seen all of the questions in this part of the Reading section. You have time left to Review. As long as there is time remaining, you can check your work.Click on Return to continue working.Click on Review to see the review screen for this section.Click on Continue to go on.Once you leave this part of the Reading Section, you WILL NOT be able to return to it. . (Reading section directions in the actual test)l 计时方式：由系统自动进行倒计时；l 常用按钮：Next, Back, Review, Return, Continuel 单词划线解释：对考生友好还是浪费时间？笔记区不要提前，尽量晚开考；考试休息期间别到处走动，可以听听其他人考口语，提前准备自己的口语话题。准备周期：个月为比较理想；单词生词率：；以后会介绍如何推断单词词义以及如何背单词。考试注意点（口语）：声音宏亮，语速稳定，逻辑清晰和TOFEL是全集和子集的关系，一个是all, 一个是none，老俞的红宝书剔除了TOFEL单词。背单词完全可以背一样的。一本红宝书就可以了。重要的是词表，分类。高中毕业生的语文水平就已经达到了handle的能力了。托福分数计算方法：分数（小于的人数等于的人数的一半）/总分数TOFEL分数分就是我们的目标。无障碍GRE分，数学分，作文分。成绩是分开看的u 从PBT到IBT的阅读习惯变化l 垂直阅读和水平阅读的差异n 视线与思维同步的问题l 纸张和屏幕的差异n 对比度差异所带来的视觉疲劳感n 是否可以做标记带来的记忆效果差异n 托福阅读的内容特征This section measures your ability to understand academic passages in English. (Reading section directions in the actual test)u 托福考试的话题特征Campus life Academic issue 阅读只考学术文章。科普文章和TOFEL的专业词汇比例一般都在左右，GRE在左右Questions are intended to measure your understanding of the passages in terms of the following: Vocabulary and grammar Major ideas and important information Relative importance of ideas Relationship of ideas to each other Organization of ideas and concepts. (Reading section directions in the actual test)u 词汇l 习惯性认知的误区：提高词汇量就等于提高了阅读能力。l 托福的词汇考查方式查看缺陷解决方案语言能力的基础词汇认知一词多义词汇推断u 语法l 习惯性认知的误区，语法不好，英语同样能学好；l 语法的重要性，语法之于语言正如法律之如社会；l 托福阅读如何进行语法考查？n 输出能力（口语和写作）中的语法考查检查是否主动犯错。n 输入能力（阅读和听力）中的语法考查通过语法设置障碍解释成绩：在ETS保留的时间是年，在学校申请日期截止日之前考完即可。科普阅读建议：大百科全书（大英和微软百科，还有w i ki 百科）Discovery，国家地理，等u 主题l 习惯性认知的错误，主题能用一两句话（尤其是各段首句）简单概括。l 托福阅读文章的新特点：标题。l 托福文章的主题类型特征Single-focus 一个主题，多个方面Multi-focus 多个主题，多个方面u 托福文章主题的考察方式to make a summary the topic of a paragraphu 重要信息l 细节信息n 习惯性认知的错误：细节是具体的描述性内容，是零散无关的n 细节作为重要信息所包含的内容general statement 首要 some related details(1) 主题:辨析文章的主要观点,并与局部小观点区分;辨析段落主题.(注:所有文章都有标题)(2) 细节:概括性信息的把握并判别具体信息的真伪- TRUE? FALSE? NOT GIVEN?l 细节信息的考察方式认知推断l 推断信息n 习惯性认知的错误：推断信息和细节信息等同n 区分事实信息（Statement）和推断信息（Inference）n 内容推断和态度推断n 推断信息的推理逻辑u 信息优先级l 习惯性认知的误区：在英语阅读中，我们从来不关心信息优先级。l 关注信息优先级的方法：n 兴趣驱动（Interest-driven）n 知识驱动（Knowledge-driven）n 逻辑驱动（Logic-driven）u 关系与结构l 习惯性认知的误区：英语阅读中我们过多地关注了信息本身，却忽略了信息之间的关系关联信息被离散化。l 不同层次的信息关系，句子和句子的关系，段落和段落的关系。l 信息结构与思维框架（Mental Framework） M.F. organizationM.F. ideas(Major/Minor) priorityrelationship essential/ non essential 树形结构，后续文章要比前面有进步。Opportunities and CompetitorsGrowth, reproduction, and daily metabolism all require an organism to expend energy. The expenditure of energy is essentially a process of budgeting, just as finances are budgeted. If all of ones money is spent on clothes, there may be none left to buy food or go to the movies. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction.All organisms, therefore, allocate energy to growth, reproduction, maintenance and storage. No choice is involved; this allocation comes as part of the genetic package from the parents. Maintenance for a given body design of an organism is relatively constant. Storage is important, but ultimately that energy will be used for maintenance, reproduction, or growth. Therefore the principal differences in energy allocation are likely to be between growth and reproduction.Almost all of an organisms energy can be diverted to reproduction, with very little allocated to building the body. Organisms at this extreme are “opportunists”. At this other extreme are “competitors”, almost all of whose resources are invested in building a huge body, with a bare minimum allocated to reproduction.Dandelions are good examples of opportunists. Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be, their stems are hollow, and all the rigidity comes from their water content. Thus, a minimum investment has been made in the body that becomes a platform for seed dispersal. This very short-lived plants reproduce prolifically, that is to say they provided a constant rain of seed in the neighborhood of parents plants. A new plant will spring up whether a seed falls on a suitable soil surface but because they do not build big bodies, they cannot compete with other plants for space, water or sunlight. These plants are termed “opportunists” because they rely on their seeds falling into settings where competing 笔记区B.G.1st organism expend energy budgetB.G.2nd organism allocate energy Genetic package SM.G.Rplants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, or landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy.Opportunists must constantly invade new areas to compensate for being displaced by more competitive species. Human landscapes of lawns, fields, or flowerbeds provide setting with bare soil and a lack of competitors that are perfect habitats for colonization by opportunists. Hence, many of the strongly opportunistic plants are the common weeds of fields and gardens.Because each individual is short-lived, the population of an opportunist species is likely to be adversely affected by drought, bad winters, or floods. If their population is tracked through time, it will be seen to be particularly unstablesoaring and plummeting in irregular cycles. The opposite of an opportunist is a competitor. These organisms tend to have big bodies, are long-lived and spend relatively little effort each year on reproduction. An oak tree is a good example of a competitor. A massive oak claims its ground for 200 years or more, out-competing all other would-be canopy trees by casting a dense shade and drawing up any free water in the soil. The leaves of an oak tree taste foul because they are rich in tannins, a chemical that renders them distasteful or indigestible to many organisms. The tannins are part of the defense mechanism that is essential to longevity. Although oaks produce thousands of acorns, the investment in a crop of acorns is small compared with the energy spend on building leaves, trunks, and roots. Once an oak tree becomes established, it is likely to survive minor cycles of drought and even fire. A population of oaks is likely to be relatively stable through time, and its survival is likely to depend more on its ability to withstand the pressure of competition or predation than on it ability to take advantage of chance events. It should be noted, however, that the pure opportunist or pure competitor is rare in nature, as most species fall between the extremes of a continuum, exhibiting a blend of some opportunistic and some competitive characteristics. Difference:=growth and reproduction3rd (Topic) Opp := energy : RG Comp:=energy :Rallocate第三段由difference开始展开。本文使用了比较分类，对比等方法The word squander in the passage is closest in meaning to(A) extend (B) transform (C)activate (D)waste2. The word none in the passage refers to(A) food (B)plant of animal (C)energy (D)big body3. In paragraph 1, the author explains the concept of energy expenditure by(A) identifying types of organisms that became extinct (B) comparing the scientific concept to a familiar human experience(C) arguing that most organisms conserve rather than expend energy(D) describing the processes of growth, reproduction, and metabolism 用budget来比喻According to the passage, the classification of organisms as “opportunists” or “competitors” is determined by(A) how the genetic information of an organism is store and maintained(B) the way in which the organism invests its energy resources(C) whether the climate to which the organism lives is mild or extreme(D) the variety of natural resources the organism consumes in its environment5. The word dispersal in the passage is closest in meaning to(A) development (B)growth (C)distribution (D)protection6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.(A) Because their seeds grow in places where competing plants are no longer preserve, dandelions are classified as opportunists.(B) Dandelions are called opportunists because they contribute to the natural processes of erosion and the creation of gaps in the forest canopy.(C) The term “opportunists” applies to plants whose seeds fall in places where they compete with seed of other plants.(D) The term “opportunists” applies to plants whose falling seeds are removed by natural processes.7. The word massive in the passage is closest in meaning to(A) huge (B)ancient (C)common (D)successful8.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 7 as contribution to the longevity of oak tree EXCEPT(A) the capacity to create shade(B) leaves containing tannin(C) the ability to withstand mild droughts and fires(D) the large number of acorns the tree produces 9.According to the passage, oak trees are considered competitors because(A) they grow in areas free of opportunities(B) they spend more energy on their leaves, trunks and roots than on their acorns(C) their population tends to increase or decrease irregular cycles(D) unlike other organisms, they do not need much water or sunlight10. In paragraph 7, the author suggests that most species of organisms(A) are primarily opportunists(B) are primarily competitors(C) begin as opportunists and evolved into competitors(D) have some characteristics of opportunists and some of competitors11. Look at the four square () that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage where would be the sentence best.Such episodic event will cause a population of dandelions, for example, to vary widely.Click on a square () add the sentence to the passage12. Directions: Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the type of organisms to which they relate. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 4 points.多使用已经做完的题目的信息来判断，第六和第八题对此题解题很有帮助。Answer choices:(A) Vary frequently the amount of energy they spend in body maintenance.(B) Having mechanisms for protecting themselves from predation.-c(C) Succeed in locations where other organism have been removed. -o(D) Have relatively short live spans.-o(E) Invest energy in the growth of large, strong structure.-c(F) Have populations that are unstable in response to climate conditions. -o(G) Can rarely find suitable soil for reproduction.(H) Produce individuals that can withstand changes in the environmental conditions. -c(I) Reproduce in large members. -o 阅读的本质和自己的状态知己知彼，百战不殆阅读的本质1. 获取有效信息（找到信息与信息之间的关联）2. 消除阅读障碍我们的状态n 阅读速度30单词/分 60单词/分 90单词/分120单词/分 150单词/分或者以上n 水平阅读中的思维同步完全无法同步，必须停止阅读才能思考 可以分同步，有明显声读现象大部分可同步，偶尔有回读现象 完全可同步，无回读现象n 水平阅读的视觉疲劳感 明显，感觉无法继续一般，有疲劳感但还可以坚持 从状态到缺陷层次化的问题模型n 水平阅读的记忆能力 基本无任何记忆零星记忆部分词或者词组 有记忆碎片但是无规律有记忆碎片并且有部分关联 有关联记忆信息n 阅读耐力（以出现走神现象为准）10分钟左右 20分钟左右 40分钟左右 60分钟左右或更长 n 单词大多数不认识认识一半左右 大多数认识 完全无障碍n 语法完全不重视且没有系统学习过 想学但是不知道如何学学过但是效果不好学过且效果不错 有效且精通n 句子对句子结构完全不了解 对句子结构有一定了解并能进行简单的句子分析对句子结构非常了解，并可以进行所有句子的结构分析n 主题完全不能把握 随机性较强，视文章而定 基本能把握 完全没问题n 重要信息u 细节信息对细节信息概念理解有错误 概念理解正确但是不知道如何把握知道概念和如何获得信息、偶而有遗漏 非常准确地把握细节信息u 推断信息对推断信息概念理解有错误 概念理解正确但是不知道如何把握知道概念和如何获得信息，偶而有遗漏 非常准确的把握推断信息n 信息优先级从未关注过 刻意关注 自然关注n 关系和结构从未关注过 刻意关注 自然关注 从状态到缺陷层次化的问题模型Hierarchical passage-paragraph-sentence-wordWord:认知和推断Sentence: 句子的最小表义单位，Paragraph: 结构的获取Passage: 对于relation的把握通过使用上面表格不断对自己修正和提高，查漏补缺。 面对缺陷，我们应该怎样.自由笔记区：成绩好勤奋聪明？不要巩俐，踏踏实实走好每一步，托福的学习过程本身就是一种享受，是提高自己能力的一个过程。一个东西，盛传很有功效，可是一直没有看到真正的效果，还是没有用的东西。背单词只有一个方法：就是死记硬背。我们建立在死记硬背基础上，但是我们希望把方法变得更加有效。自然记忆的好处：可以记得更牢，记忆过程不明显，高频率重复，模拟一个过程，不断在大脑中重现。没有刻意去做却做到了。建议有5 条。 基本缺陷的解决单词、语法和资料的选择n 单词缺陷的解决方案u 词汇书的选择l TOEFL考试需要我们掌握多少单词？l 我们自己有多少单词？l 我们需要什么样的词汇书？四级词汇书词汇配对表TOEFL词汇书： 比如李笑来的21天；玉梅的词汇书；戴云写的ibt 10000单词（实际70008000）u 词典的选择l 托福考试需要什么样的词典？l 推荐的词典朗文 2800字解释了所有的东西牛津American history dictionary文曲星: 别用这个反查意思，用google好了。u 词汇记忆方法l 两种记忆方式n 机械记忆n 自然记忆l 单词在记忆过程中的状态n 形同陌路n 似曾相识n 一见如故n 刻骨铭心l 单词记忆的方法原则：高频率重复1. 使用零散时间背单词2. 重复周期15天，大量进行重复 300 每个单词给510秒，遍数要多，不要手写，模拟自然记忆3. 阅读和背单词相结合，阅读难度控制在生词率35不认识的单词，尽量不要去想是什么意思。等读完之后去查，写在word本上4. 视觉刺激和听觉刺激相结合老俞的单词串讲注意记忆发音例：脑白金广告n 语法缺陷的解决方案u 语法书的选择朗文英语语法 剑桥中级英语语法English in use(看中文版)托福ibt语法精要（戴云）科林朗茨语法 注意：当成手册去查u 包含且仅包含语言使用过程中的所有因素词汇、句子、语篇、语境、交流方式。1. 老托福真题首选（寄托，太傻，鲤鱼，小马过河，emule等网站均可下载到）2. Discovery3. National Geography4. 大百科全书：微软大百科大英百科wiki百科5. 原版教材6. 英美文化教程7. MIT的Open course(带视频)8. TTC教育公司录制的美国上课实录，选择一个就刻意听很长时间，注意听逻辑结构9. 21世纪，China daily,英语世界等杂志10. 每天半小时坚持是上网看English news 缺陷能力的解决篇章和句子n 结构化阅读方法u 托福文章的结构特征1. 结构主体（支撑）2. 细节主体（填充）正如叶脉和叶肉，主题句：能够引出新内容的句子（每段的前几句）主题段：最早出现和文章标题相关联的段落(文章的前几段)论文的结构：嵌套三层次Intro.(B.G.或者topic)Body (sub-topic - analysis + evidenceSub-topic - analysis + evidence)Conclusion: topic 的重复（结构）立论：同意观点；驳论:反驳观点u 快速笔记方法克服记忆能力的缺陷l 回忆：思维框架的概念l 快速笔记的作用n 代替垂直阅读时的勾画n 辅助思维框架形成并辅助记忆n 信息索引l 快速笔记的内容1. 结构主体的核心词2. 时间和数字（注：同步记录时间及相应的事件； 一律记录为数字）3. 人名地名专有名词（使用首字母标记）4. 举例的主体5. 新概念及局部核心的概念6. 重要的逻辑关系自由笔记区不要试图记下所有的东西理论分析evidence读对了以后才能读快。快速动态信息获取听力逻辑训练：AB对话猜想Predicting-skimming 有详略选择的阅读方法-note-taking把握general statements阅读以后产生期待，验证期待，继续验证期待，滚动往下 逻辑如果验证失败，修正期待，继续阅读，产生期待。这是阅读理解的过程。这就是带着问题看文章。阅读和口语的关系: (1) 规范口语的逻辑(2) 提供口语表达的素材理论，阐述，例子l 记