李战子功能语类观与阅读理解.ppt

第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Functional genre theory and its implications in teaching advanced reading comprehension 功能语类观与阅读理解,李战子 南京国际关系学院,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,内容提要,通过讨论外语读写教学中对语类的各种理解，指出其中存在的矛盾和不确定性； 通过介绍语类作为功能话语分析的核心概念，简述功能语类观的主要内容； 并围绕阅读理解教学中的几个实例展示功能语类观的实际应用。,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,语类与话语种类 Genre and discourse types,Register 语域 Discourse types 话语种类 Genre 语类 Varieties of discourse 各类话语 Discourse modes 话语模式,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Bex, S. 2011, Discourse and Genre, Palgrave Macmillan Macmillan,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,语类与语料库语言学,The impetus for categorizing texts and discourses came from the practical needs of corpus linguistics. fiction, non-fiction (BROWN and LOB corpora of written English); intuitive classifications (the Helsinki corpus);,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,基于情景的直觉分类法,Intuitive classifications are made on the basis of the purpose for which a text is produced, rather than on purely linguistic criteria - they correspond to our intuitive feelings about whether texts/discourses are of the same type are not.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,A type of text understood intuitively as being a certain kind can then be analyzed in terms of what its prototypical linguistic characteristics are.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Difference between genres,Crystal &Davys 1969 book on stylistics was one of the first in linguistics to systematically account for differences between genres.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,语类和话语种类： 外在和内在的分类？,Genre & register: externally definable classes of text (e.g. Fairy-tale, news report, diary), used for a specific purpose, in a specific communication situation, with often particular interlocutor roles. Text/discourse types: on a text internal-basis, to indicate variation according to the organization and content of texts.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre and discourse types,Discourse types are prototypical categories, and text-internally characterizable discourse types may be found in several text-externally defined genres or registers. E.g. The narrative discourse types is representative not only of fairy-tales, but also of genres like news stories, diaries, and reports of scientific experiments.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre and discourse types,These and many other genres may manifest coherence in terms of such prototypical characteristics of narratives as temporal succession and/or agent orientation. The other way round, a diary would not necessarily have to be a narrative discourse type, although typically it is.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Traditional text-type categories,Werlich (1976) Five idealized types of text: narrative descriptive instructive expository argumentative,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Taxonomic distinctions within genres,Subgenres of journalese: news report (prototypical) editorial background article letter to the editor sports commentary profile article advertisement,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre delicacy epistolary writing and miscellaneous records ( not in terms of literary value),【原文】 夫书记广大，衣被事体，笔札杂名，古今多品。是以总领黎庶，则有谱籍簿录；医历星筮（sh），则有方术占试式；申宪述兵，则有律令法制；朝市徵（zhng）信，则有符契券疏；百官询事，则有关刺解牒；万民达志，则有状列辞谚：并述理于心，著言于翰，虽艺文之末品，而政事之先务也。,【译文】 书记的范围很广，包括各种记事的体裁，笔记的名称很杂，从古到今有各种名目。因此总管百姓事务的，有谱籍簿录；有关医药历法星相占卜的，有方术占式；申明法令和讲兵法的，有律令法制；在朝廷和市集上各种凭证，有符契券疏；百官询问事情，有关刺解牒；万民表达意志，有状列辞谚：都是讲从心内发出来的意思，用笔记下来，虽然是文辞中的下品，却是办理政事所先要处理的事务。,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre,Genre is a recognizable communicative event characterized by a set of communicative purpose(s) identified and mutually understood by members of the professional or academic community in which it regularly occurs. (Batia),第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Context and Lexicogrammar,Context concerns: Field (what is going on) Tenor (the social roles and relationships between the participants) Mode (aspects of the channel of communication).,The Lexico-Grammar concerns the syntactic organisation of words into utterances. Actor, Agent/Medium, Theme Mood, etc.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Strata of Language,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Parameters of Context,Field,the situational setting in which a piece of language occurs, including: the subject matter participants.,the relationship between the participants, including variation in: Formality; performance of the relationship; the degree of emotional charge.,Tenor,the channel of communication, including : monologic/dialogic, spoken/written, +/- visual-contact, etc,Mode,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre study 1: Linguistic analysis of syntactic properties,Linguistic analyses of frequency of syntactic properties in different genres are interesting and useful in the sense that they provide necessary empirical evidence to confirm or disprove some of the intuitive and impressionistic statements that we all tend to make about the high or low incidence of certain lexico-grammarical features of various genres.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,However, this level of linguistic analysis tells us very little about what aspects of these genres are textualized and to what purpose.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre study 1: Linguistic analysis of syntactic properties,.statistical significance of a particular linguistic feature in a specific genre becomes more significant if it is possible to say what aspect of the genre it textualizes.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,This kind of insight into text-patterning in various genres tends to provide exciting answers to the question “Why do members of what sociologists call secondary culture write the way they do? “. Thus taking linguistic description a step further in the direction of explanation.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre study 1: Linguistic analysis of syntactic properties,However, just as it is possible for a particular syntactic feature to perform several functions specific to a particular genre, similarly, it is also possible for a particular feature of language to perform different functions in different genres. E.G. the use of NPs and nominalizations in advertising, legislation and scientific research articles.,Nominalization is a very ancient and trusted linguistic device used by the legal expert to achieve condensation and all-inclusiveness in his writing.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre study 1,Genre, after all, is a socio-culturally dependent communicative event and is judged effective to the extent that it can ensure pragmatic success in the business or other professional context in which it is used.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre Study 2: ESP(专门用途英语) genre analysis,The second main strand of genre studies in applied linguistics draws from the work of Swales (1981,1990), working in the area called English for Specific Purposes (ESP).,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre Study 2: English in academic and professional setting,Introductions to research articles; the results section of research articles; the introduction and discussion sections of dissertations; popularized medical texts; abstracts; job application; sales promotion letters; legislative documents; academic lectures;,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre Study 2: English in academic and professional setting,Coupled with this notion of the changing rather than static genre, is the inclusion in ESP genre studies of the notion of prototypicality, that is, the way in which properties such as communicative purpose, form, structure, and audience expectations, operate to identify the extent to which an exemplar is prototypical of a particular genre. (Swales, 1990:52),第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre Study 3: The heterogeneity of discourse,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre Study 3: The heterogeneity of discourse,The matching of language to context is characterized by Indeterminacy, heterogeneity and struggle. It means any text is constructed out of discourse conventions which have diverse origins.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre Study 3: language variety,This critical genre theory of variety (The matching of language to context is characterized by indeterminacy, heterogeneity and struggle) eschews typologies, and is therefore at odds with both Hallidays idea of a predictable register, and with more normative versions of genre theory such as Swales (1990) and Martin(1989).,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre study 4: a middle position,On the one hand it is important to recognize the indeterminacy, heterogeneity and struugle view of language variety, in order not to suggest that certain discourse characteristics are correct, or that discourses are static, and to avoid the prescriptivism which comes from such a view. On the other hand if we take this caution too far it is impossible to talk about the idea of people drawing on discourse conventions at all.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre study 4: a middle position,Certain characteristics are discourse-specific Particular discourse characteristics are shaped by the current interest, values, beliefs and practices of particular social groups, and so position the writers as participating in these interests, values, beliefs and practices. This means that, when a writer words something in a particular way, by a particular choice of words and structures, they are aligning themselves with others who use such words and structures, and hence making a statement of identity about themselves.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,小结：功能语类观采取中间立场，既承认语类的不确定性和混杂性，又认为应该研究语类特定的语言特征和语类常规。,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre and register,Martin,J.R. 1992. English Text Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company Chapter 7. Context: Register, Genre and ideology,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre and Register,Genres are shaped by institutionally defined purposes, roles, and the social relationships associated with themSo the conventions of genres make available certain roles and role relationships, which people may conform to, or they may resist. Register is defined as “the configuration of semantic resources that the member of the culture associates with a situation type. It is the meaning potential that is accessible in a given social context” (Halliday 1978a:111),第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre as a register pattern: its advantage (1),The advantages of formulating genre as a pattern of register patterns: (1) Establishing genre as a level of semiosis which is not itself metafunctionally organized means that texts can be classified in ways which cut across metafunctional components in language .,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre as a register pattern: its advantage (1),This strengthens Hallidays suggestion that field is strongly predictive of experiential choices, tenor of interpersonal choices and mode of textual ones without sacrificing the classification of texts into generic types such as narrative, exposition, procedure, report etc. Generic labels such as narrative or exposition are impossible to tie satisfactorily to any one type of meaning; their realization cuts across metafunctions. For this reason, it is useful not to associate genre too closely with any one register variable.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre as a register pattern: its advantage (2),(2) Setting up genre as a pattern of register patterns makes it possible to account for the fact that in a given culture, not all combinations of field, mode and tenor variables occur.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre as a register pattern: its advantage (3),Making genre rather than register variables responsible for generating schematic structure makes it easier to handle changes in experiential, interpersonal and textual meaning from one stage to another in a text. There are many text types where this occurs:,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,a salesperson will manipulate tenor in order to close a sale; sports commentators shift rhythmically from play by play description to critique and evaluation. a teacher may shift fields to explain a point in analogy;,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre as a register pattern: its advantage (3),Underlying register, genre can be used to predict these changes, stage by stage, which at the same time accounting for a texts overall coherence.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre as a register pattern: its advantage (4),Distinguishing genre and register makes it easier to account for differences between the sequential unfolding of text as process and the notion of activity associated with field. E.g. live commentary on a football match vs. newspaper accounts of the game - same field, different in staging, i.e. in genre.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Unhooking field from staging makes it possible to show how texts of these kinds are alike and different at the same time.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genre as a register pattern: its advantage (5),the question of genre agnation(亲和关系) - Combinations of field, mode and tenor choices enter into relationships with each other which are more than the sum of their parts; to some extent, genres have a life of their own,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,小结：在语域的层面之上增加语类层，是以马丁等为代表的新韩礼德学派加深对社会文化语境研究的贡献，在实际操作中依然注重语言体现，但在出发点和落脚点上，把语类看作是分步骤的社会活动。,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Mixed texts or mixed genres,Genre Relations about shifting gears (Martin & Rose, 2008:223224) Some texts shift gears, from one configuration of meaning to another. Mixed texts or mixed genres? Not the genres (e.g. reports, expositions typologically distinct systemic categories) that are mixed, but the individual texts that instantiate them,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,A recipe for disaster Ingredients 1 World Trade Organization 1 International Monetary Fund 1 World Bank A Handful of rich countries As many poor countries as you can get First take the international organizations (WTO, IMF, World Bank) and use them to force open the markets of poor countries. Next cut off the support poor-country governments give their farmers. Using plenty of subsidies, prepare the following in the rich countries, and pour generously over poor countries. Frozen chicken from Europe and the US-ship to Ghana where it will be sold more cheaply than Ghanaian chicken. Rice from the US dump on Honduras where it will force local farmers out of business. Plenty of European tomato paste smear over west Africas markets until locally grown tomatoes have turned rotten.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Table 6.1: Configurations of meaning across generalised recount, historical recount and policy genres,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Figure 6.2: Generalized recounts drawn outwards,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,New genres recurring of the mixed,(Martin & Rose, 2008:223) Genesis （发生）: “At this point we need to bring time into the picture, since mixed texts are one obvious source of new genres. If the mix gets instantiated often enough. Because the social purpose of such texts recurs often enough, then we stop seeing it as a mix of genres and accept it as a new genre in which the shift in gears is treated as a predictable move from one stage to the next each partaking in the accomplishment of the telos of the new genres”.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Genres: linguistic or social practices?,Linguistic view: A genre is a kind of text. Academic lectures and casual conversations are examples of spoken genres. Newspaper reports and academic essays are examples of written genres. (Paltridge, 2006:84),第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Social practice view: genre is a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as member of our culture. Examples of genres are staged activities such as making a dental appointment, buying vegetables, telling a story, writing an essay, applying for a job, writing a letter to the editor, inviting someone to dinner, and so on. (Martin, 2001: 155, emphasis added),第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Fairclough likewise, in his definition below, also stresses the activity aspect, subsuming language within a broader world of signification (the semiotic mode): Genres are diverse ways of acting. of producing social life, in the semiotic mode. Examples are: everyday conversation, meetings in various types of organizations, political and other forms of interview, and book reviews. (Fairclough, 2003:206, emphasis added),第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Martin & Rose (2008) treat genre as a recurrent configuration of meaning, which phases field, mode and tenor variables into stages which enact its social purpose.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Martin,J.R., Matthiessen, M.I.M., & Painter, C., 2010. Developing Functional Grammar. Beijing: The Commercial Press.,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,功能语类观概述,Key resources for text analysis (by strata and metafunction)(M Ideational: Orbital/serial structure Interpersonal: prosodic structure Textual: periodic structure,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,Systemic approach has been developing detailed specifications of the staging structures and realization features of different genres, as well as accounts of how genres can relate to and evolve into other genres, thus providing replicable and functionally motivated accounts of different genres in our culture. (Eggins & Martin, p.236-237),第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,We also recognize a texts genre by the sequence of functionally distinct stages or steps through which it unfolds. Genre theory suggests that texts which are doing different jobs in the culture will unfold in different ways, working through different stages or steps. Again, this relationship between context and text is theorized as probabilistic, not deterministic; an interactant setting out to achieve a particular cultural goal is most likely to initiate a text of a particular genre, and that text is most likely to unfold in a particular way but the potential for alternatives is inherent in the dialogic relationship between language and context. (Eggins & Martin, p.236),第12届功能语言学研讨会功能周-2011年11月南京,- So genre is more than a name( e.g. treaty, agreement). The functional parameter is all that matters. We need to study genre by going beyond giving it a n