大学英语实用写作.ppt

大学英语实用写作,Practical College English Writing,Brief Introduction,This book includes five chapters . Chapter 1 Sentence (造句) Chapter 2 Paragraph（段落） Chapter 3 Essay Writing（短文写作） Chapter 4 Practical Writing（应用文写作） Chapter 5 CET-4 Writing（四级写作） Appendix (附录) Characters of the book: 1. Easy contents! Easy understood! 2. Multiple examples from original books, magazines, newspapers and speeches by the native, which are used to improve our appreciating ability and widen our horizon. 3. A lot of exercises aiming to strengthen what weve learned in class.,Chapter One Lets Begin With Sentence,Types of sentence Common Errors Sentence Variety,Types of sentences (句子种类 ),1. 按使用目的， 句子可分为四类： Declarative (陈述句), Interrogative（疑问句）, Imperative（祈使句） , Exclamatory sentences（感叹句） 2. 按句子结构可分三类： Simple sentence(简单句)， compound sentence(并列句),complex sentence (复合句) 3. 从修辞角度，可分为三类： Loose sentence(松散句)， periodic sentence(圆周句)， antithesis sentence （对偶句) 4. 从句子的字数，长短来看，可分为两类： Long sentence (长句)，short sentence (短句),1，按使用目的来分4种： Declarative Sentence,特点：说明事实，或陈述一种看法。主语位于句首。 Declarative sentences are widely used in writing and are the basic writing skills for the English learners. It usually follows the order of subject +predicate + Eg: I was born in the year 1632. I dont think he can pass the exam.,Interrogative Sentence,特点： 提出问题， 由助动词（do, be, will, have), 情态动词（must, should, ought, may, would, could), 疑问词（w-, h- ）来开始句子。 Four questions： 1 General Question(一般疑问句) Are you student? 注：用助动词提问，用是或不是来回答。 2 Wquestion, H-question(特殊疑问句) What do you do? 注：用疑问词来提问，根据疑问词回答问题。 3 Alternative Question (选择疑问句) Are you a student or a teacher? 注：不一定有提问词，但一定有并列连词or。 4 Tag-question (反意疑问句) You are a student, arent you? 注：Tag 本意为附加词，所以反意疑问句也叫附加疑问句，其特点是句子分两部分，前半部陈述，逗号后开始提问，提问词必须与前半句时态保持一致，而且前半句肯定，后半句要用否定提问，反之亦然。 You are a student, arent you? You are not a student, are you? Yes, I am. Yes, I am. No, I am not. No, I am not.,Imperative Sentence,特点：提出请求，建议或发出命令。 形式上是动词原形起句，主语省略。 Eg: Help! 救命！ Stand up! 起立！ Get out! 滚开！ Leave me alone! 让我自己呆会儿！,Exclamatory Sentence,特点： 表达一种情绪。形式上是修饰性短语modifier后接主语和be。 主语和be可以省略。一般有两种引导方式 : what +noun +subject +be How + adj or adv + subject +be/v. Eg: How shiny Nicole Kidman is! What a shiny woman Nicole Kidman is! How fast you run! Text Book Examples P1-3 Exercises: P7,2. 按句子结构可分为3种：,Simple Sentence （只含有一个主谓结构的句子） 特点: one subject + one predicate Eg: I am singing. one subject + several predicates Eg: I am singing, laughing and dancing. several subjects + one predicate Eg: Tom, Jane and I are singing. several subjects + several predicates Eg: Tom, Jane and I are singing, laughing and dancing. 注： 简单句中的一个或多个主语与一个或多个谓语一定是主谓关系。,Compound Sentence（包含两个或两个以上主谓结构的句子）,特点：句与句之间用并列连词或分号连接。各分句间在意义上有紧密的联系。 Eg: It is raining, so I have to find a shelter. It is raining; I have to find a shelter. 注： 逗号只能跟并列连词共同使用才能连接并列句。 不然就构成逗号割裂。 Eg: I like playing football, he likes playing basketball.() I like playing football; he likes playing basketball.() I like playing football, and he likes playing basketball.() 注： ， coordinating words = ; 它们与句号的区别在于前后两句话连接紧密。 Today is a fine day. I have to do my homework.,Coordinate conjunction: And, but, for, or, so, yet, nor,Complex Sentence(包含一个主句和几个分句的句子),特点：要用从属连词 subordinate conjunction来连接分句。 注： 本身不能独立表达完整的意思而只在句子中作句子结构的一部分者叫做从句（clause）。用以连接从句使其在主句中发挥表达功能的词叫做从属连词（Subordinate Conjunction: where, when, if, though, because, if, that, though/although, unless，when) Eg: I met the man who saved a boy from the accident. (定语从句) If I have 10 thousand yuan, I will buy you a necklace.（条件状语从句） I think that he is a qualified teacher. (宾语从句) Where there is will, there is a way. (地点状语从句) Homework: find out all the subordinate conjunctions from the passage. P9 The Gettysburg Address (葛底斯堡演说) Textbook: Examples P 7-9 Practice P 9,3.从修辞角度分,Loose sentence 句子中，先介绍主要信息，再介绍次要信息，就是松散句. 特点： 结构松散，各部分能表达独立的意思。由于主要意思在前，可将句号移前而不影响理解。松散句没有高潮，用于轻松，自然的表达观点或列举同等重要的事实。 注： 并列句是松散句。 复合句当主句在前就是松散句, 反之是圆周句。 Eg: I didnt pass the exam because I felt my mind empty when I sat in the classroom. (松散句) Eg: Because when I sat in the classroom， I felt my mind empty, I didnt pass the exam. （圆周句） 简单句根据主干及附属成分的关系判断。 Eg: The meeting will be held tomorrow . (松散句) Eg: Tomorrow the meeting will be held. (圆周句),Periodic sentence 圆周句,句子中，先介绍次要信息，再介绍主要信息，直到句子结束意思才完整的表达清楚，就是圆周句，也叫掉尾句。 特点： 结构紧凑，吸引读者读到最后。往往是为表强调和获得句子高潮。 Eg: Though she was interested in music, she finally came to this institute to study English. Eg: Yesterday morning, on the way to school, with my long hair flied to my eyes, I bumped into a big rock. 注：松散句与圆周句的转换 Eg: From breakfast to lunch, from lunch to dinner, from dinner to midnight snack, he is thinking only one thing, the next meal. Eg: He is thinking only one thing, the next meal, from breakfast to lunch, from lunch to dinner, from dinner to midnight snack.,Antithesis sentence 对偶句,一个句子中如果含有两个或更多的在语法形式和作用上相同的成分，便是具有了平行结构（balance structure）的句子,就叫做对偶句。 特点： 富有节奏感，读起来铿锵有力，富有文采，感染读者。 Eg: Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. 读史使人明智；读诗使人灵秀；数学使人周密；科学使人深刻；伦理学使人庄重；逻辑修辞学使人善辩。（论读书） Examples of textbook: Exercises: P 15,按句子字数，长短来分 Long sentence and short sentence,Long sentence 特点： 结构复杂，容量大，用于准确表达复杂的思想，修饰语较多，可用与解释及说明。精确，严密，但缺乏灵活。 Short sentence: 特点：结构简单，短小精悍，明白易懂，用于陈述重要事实。简洁，明快，有力，但不利于表达复杂的内容。 Eg: I came; I saw; I conquered. War is hell. Eg: As applied to colleges, this would mean that students would gather in pleasant informal surroundings and discuss intelligently matters with a common appeal, as we done in the university. Not only would they enrich their knowledge, but they would also learn how to compromise and see each others viewpoint by obtaining which instead of the one our system presents, the students would learn to know their own minds and think objectively instead of receiving opinions on a silver platter. 注：短句转换成长句（增加并列或从属连词） Examples of textbook: Exercises: P 19,Common errors(常见句法错误),Run-on sentence(串句) I like playing basketball he likes playing football. Sentence Fragments(残缺句即破句) Because it is raining. We have to find a shelter. Misplaced modifiers(误置修饰语) He killed the man who beat him with a knife. Dangling modifier(垂悬修饰语) Going through the red light, the traffic police stopped him. Faulty Parallelism(错误平行结构) She is beautiful, smart and has two dogs.,Run-on sentence(串句),串句就是误将两个或更多独立的成分合写在一个句子里而不用适当的分离标记。 特点：意思含糊不清，读者无法理解各部分的关系。 两种串句： 1，融合句（Fused sentence）句子中没有标点符号和连接词。 Eg: Tom decided to give up smoking he didnt want to die of lung cancer. 2， 逗号连接（comma splice）没有连接词，只用逗号将两个完整的意思连接起来。 Eg: Tom decided to give up smoking, he didnt want to die of lung cancer. 五种修改方法： 1，句号分隔（两句之间关系不是很紧密） 2，分号分隔（分句间关系较为紧密） 3，逗号并列连词（分句间关系密切且存在一定的逻辑关系）,4，分号连接副词逗号（分句间关系密切且存在一定的逻辑关系） Eg: China is bigger than Japan; however, Japan is richer than China. 5, 用从属连词、关系代词、关系副词连接，将其中一句变成另一句的从句。 从属连词：if, after, though, in case, since, till, now that, unless, in order that, as 关系代词：who, whom, whose, that, which, whoever 关系副词：where, when, why, how, wherever, whenever ( = 介词关系代词which) 连接副词： however, hence, still, otherwise, consequently, namely, therefore, nevertheless, anyway, thus, moreover. Examples of the textbook: P 22, Exercises: P24,Sentence Fragments (残缺句， 破句) 不能独立成句的句子片段,由从属连词引起的破句（Dependent-word Fragments） 方法：1，合并残缺片段与主句 2，根据意思和结构删除从属连词 Eg: After I arrived in Beijing. I checked into a room.() After I arrived in Beijing, I checked into a room.() I arrived in Beijing and checked into a room.() 由分词或不定式引起的破句（ing and to fragments） 方法：1，根据句意合并残缺片段与主句 2，在残缺片段前加主语，使其成为一句话 Eg1: Recognizing the star. Tom rushed to him. () Recognizing the star, Tom rushed to him.() Tom Recognized the star and rushed to him .() Eg2: To pass the exam. I didnt go to bed until 12 oclock. () To pass the exam, I didnt go to bed until 12 oclock .(),由添加细节所引起的破句（Added-detail Fragments） 细节词：for example, except, such as, including, especially 方法： 1，根据句意合并残缺片段与主句 2，给残缺片段加主语或谓语使其成为一句话 3，根据句意替换某些动词使句子片段与主句形成完整意思 Eg: I like sports. For example, swimming and running. () I like sports, for example ,swimming and running.() I like sports. For example, I like swimming and running.() The sports I like are swimming and running.() 缺少主语引起的破句（Missing-subject Fragments） 方法： 1， 加主语 2，合并残缺片段与主句 Eg: I go to school at 6 am. And go back home at 8 pm. () I go to school at 6 am. And I go back home at 8 pm .() I go to school at 6 am and go back home at 8 pm .() Examples of the textbook: P 29 Exercises: P 34,Misplaced Modifiers （误置修饰语）,把修饰词放错了位置，导致句子意思混淆，产生歧义。 方法：把修饰词（定语、状语、短语、从句）尽可能的靠近所修饰的成分。 Squinting Modifiers (歧义修饰语或偏斜修饰语) 既可以修饰前面又可以修饰后面的修饰语叫做歧义修饰语。 Eg: Students who study often get high grades. () Students who often study get high grades. () Students who study get high grades often. () 注：1，only, nearly, almost, just, even, hardly, scarcely, simply 等这类形容词或副词在作修饰词时，具有明显的限定意义。根据这些修饰语在句中的不同位置，其意义也可不同。要尽可能靠近所修饰的词语，一般在前。 Eg: I nearly earned 100$ last week. () I earned nearly 100$ last week. (),2, 将句中表示时间，地点，方式的状语或状语从句放到句首，不会造成歧义。,Eg: The new couple decided to get married on a rainy June day. () On a rainy June day, the new couple decided to get married. () 3, 将看似放在哪都不合适的状语放在句首。 Eg: I killed the bee that stung me with a newspaper. () I killed the bee with a newspaper that stung me. () With a newspaper, I killed the bee that stung me. () 4, 由which 和that引导的定语从句要紧跟先行词。 Eg: I ate an apple on bed that was very delicious. () I ate an apple that was very delicious on bed. () Examples from textbook P40 Exercises P42,垂悬修饰语（Dangling modifiers）,当分词和短语做修饰语时，修饰语的逻辑主语与主句的主语不一致，这就是垂悬修饰语。 两种修改方法：改前面，改后面。 1, 垂悬-ing 动词（ Dangling ing verbs） Eg: Swimming in the river, a rock cut my foot. () Swimming in the river, my foot was cut by a rock. () Swimming in the river, I felt a rock cut my foot. () Swimming in the river, I had my foot cut by a rock. () When I was swimming in the river, a rock cut my foot.() 2,垂悬不定式（ Dangling infinitive） Eg: To pass the exam, good preparation is needed. () To pass the exam, you need good preparation. () If you want to pass the exam, good preparation is needed. (),3,垂悬介词短语（ Dangling prepositional phrase） Eg: At the top of the mountain, cars looked like fish in the stream.(),At the top of the mountain, we found that cars looked like fish in the stream. () When we were at the top of the mountain, cars looked like fish in the stream. () 4,垂悬省略从句（ Dangling Elliptical clause） Eg: When eating my dinner, three mosquitoes bit me.() When I was eating my dinner, three mosquitoes bit me. () When eating my dinner, I was bitten by three mosquitoes. () Examples from textbook P46 Exercises P48,平行结构错误（Faulty Parallelism）,两个或两个以上意思并列的成分，若是用不同等的语法成分表达出来，那么就构成了错误的平行结构。 Eg: She is beautiful, smart and has two dogs. () She is beautiful, smart and she has two dogs. () She is beautiful and smart, and she has two dogs. () 1, 并列连词（coordinating conjunction） And, but, or, so, for, yet Eg: She is an adult, married and has young daughter. () She is an adult, married woman and mother with a young daughter. () Eg: I dont like reading, to write and spoke. () I dont like reading, writing or speaking. () 2, 关联连词（correlative conjunction） Not onlybut also, bothand, eitheror, neithernor, whetheror 关联连词要成对出现，且前后所跟的成分应具有相同的语法结构。 Eg: After graduation, I will either go to America or to go to Canada. () After graduation, I will either go to America or go to Canada. () After graduation, I will go to either America or Canada. (),3,一系列平行词（words in a series）,4, 对比和比较的词（than, as） Eg: My eyes are bigger than you. () My eyes are bigger than yours. () My eyes are bigger than those of yours. () 5, 虚词 6,介词 7, 冠词 8, 不定式 9,引导词(and who, and which 一定是前面出现了who, which 后才可以使用) Eg: Mary is an American girl and who likes Chinese food very much. () Mary who is an American girl and who likes Chinese food very much. () Mary who likes Chinese food very much is an American girl. (),第三节 多姿多彩的句子（Sentence Variety）,句型多样化是指一个段落中的短句，长句，简单句，并列句，和复合句错杂使用，使句子灵活多变多姿多彩。 方法：7种方法 1，使用并列连词（sentence variety through coordinators） Eg: My son is studying computer. My daughter is majoring in communication. My son is studying computer and my daughter is majoring in communication. Eg: We are watering the trees. We dont have rain for a month. We are watering the trees for we dont have rain for a month. 2, 使用从属连词（Sentence Variety through Subordinations） Eg: The boy was in a motorcycle accident. The boy limps. The boy who limps was in a motorcycle accident. The boy who was in a motorcycle accident limps. Eg: The movie disgusted the audience. They walked out after 10 minutes. Because the movie disgusted the audience, they walked out after 10 minutes.,3，使用介词短语（Sentence Variety through Prepositional Phrases）,Eg: She married a poor shepherd. Her parents disagreed with it. Against her parents, she married a poor shepherd. Over her parents protest, she married a poor shepherd. 4, 使用分词（ Sentence Variety through Participles） Eg: She refused to get out of bed. She pulled a blanket over her head. Pulling a blanket over her head, she refused to get out of bed. Refusing to get out of bed, she pulled a blanket over her head. Eg: He crossed the finishing line. He was inspired by his girlfriend. Inspired by his girlfriend, he crossed the finishing line. 5, 使用同位语（ Sentence Variety through Appositives） Eg: Andy Lau jumped down the stage to rescue his fan from guards. Andy Lau is my favorite singer. Andy Lau, my favorite singer, jumped down the stage to rescue his fan from guards.,6, 使用独立结构（ Sentence Variety through Absolute Phrases）,独立结构的实质和类型 所谓“独立结构”（Absolute Construction）实质就是带有自己主语的非限定分句和无动词分句.分为不定式“独立结构”，-ing分词“独立结构”，-ed分词“独立结构”和无动词“独立结构”，通常在句中起状语分句的作用。 Eg: She stared at me .Her eyes are glaring. Eyes glaring, she stared at me. Eg: The Trojans were asleep. The Greek soldiers crept out of the hollow wooden horse. The Trojans asleep, the Greek soldiers crept out of the hollow wooden horse. 7, 使用修饰语开头的句子（ Sentence Variety through Modifiers） Eg: She is intelligent and beautiful. She holds many boys attention. Intelligent and beautiful, she holds many boys attention.,第二章 段落的写作（Lets Try a Paragraph）,第一节 段落的基本结构（basic structure of a paragraph） Outline (a plan for your writing) Topic Sentence A: First main point B: Second main point C: Conclusion,Topic Sentence,Development Sentence,Concluding Sentence,The most general and important statement.,Specific, concrete, exact details,Sum up, general,Sub-point 1,Sub-point 2,Sub-point 1,Sub-point 2,Development Sentence,Write an outline for the paragraph below,Living with my ex-roommate was unbearable. She thought everything she owned the best. If someone complicated my pants, she would point that her designer jeans looked better and would last longer because they were made of better material. Further more she possessed numerous filthy（肮脏的） habits. Her desk and closets overflowed with heaps(堆) of dirty clothes, books, and cosmetics. She never brushed her teeth. Piles of “best-brand” tissues were regularly discarded from her upper bunk(上铺)and strewn(撒) the floor. Living with such roommate is a nightmare. Topic Sentence: Living with my ex-roommate was unbearable. A: She thought everything she owned the best. 1, pants B: she possessed numerous filthy habits 1, desk and closets 2, never brushed her teeth 3, “best-brand” tissues Conclusion: Living with such roommate is a nightmare.,1. 主题句（Topic Sentence）,特点： 概括段落的中心思想 包括： 主题（Topic), 主旨（Controlling idea） 主题是作者讨论的对象，主旨是作者对讨论对象的观点。 Eg: Writing an outline is an aid to organizing a composition. Topic: Writing an outline Controlling idea: is an aid to organizing a composition Eg: Going to college requires more independence than going to school. Topic: Going to college Controlling idea: requires more independence than going to school. 2, 发展句 （Developing sentence） 支持，解释，论证主题句 特点是要统一和连贯 3，结论句（Concluding sentence） 出现在段尾，总结，归纳全段内容，进一步强调段落的中心思想。,第二节段落的开展方法（Ways of developing a paragraph）,1, 时间（Paragraph development by chronological order） 记叙文，按时间先后顺序排列句子。 2,过程（ Paragraph development by a analysis of a process） 说明文，用来叙述一件事应遵循的程序或步骤。 3,空间（ Paragraph development by spatial order） 说明文，按物体的空间位置，上到下，里到外，左到右等展开段落。 4, 分类（ Paragraph development by a classification scheme） 说明文，按一定标准对事物进行分类。 5, 举例（ Paragraph development by a series of closely-related short examples） 议论文居多，用典型，具体，生动的事例来证明。 6, 因果分析（ Paragraph development by cause-effect sequence） 说明文，通过分析事物发生的原因，自然的说明所导致的结果，或是由结果推断原因。 7, 类比和比较（ Paragraph development by comparison/contrast） 议论文。先叙述单方面的全部细节，或是逐个问题对两方面进行对比。 8, 下定义（ Paragraph development by a definition） 9, 综合法（ Paragraph development by a combination of these techniques）,第三节 好的段落（Effective Paragraph）,1, 统一性（Unity） 要求发展句（developing sentence） 为（topic sentence） 服务，紧扣中心思想。同时保持人称，文体及时态的一致。 2，连贯性(Coherence) 要求段落按照逻辑顺序展开，将事实按照一定逻辑关系组织成一段有意义的，前后相互关联的话。 3，过渡性（Continuity） 要求各句之间有一系列的逻辑关系组成，并列、因果、递进、转折、让步。 由过渡词完成 textbook P59 Examples of textbook: P91,第三章 短文写作（Essay Writing）,第一节 英语短文的构成（Structure of English essays） 一，引言段（Introductory Paragraph） 方法：1， 开门见山，点明主题 Eg: Living with my ex-roommate is unbearable. 2，引经据典， 名言谚语 A bad beginning makes a bad ending. 不善始者不善终。 Actions speak louder than words. 事实胜于雄辩。 A fall into a pit, a gain in your wit. 吃一堑，长一智。 A good beginning is half done. 良好的开端是成功的一半。 A good conscience is a soft pillow. 不做亏心事，不怕鬼叫门。 3， 介绍背景，引出主题 Eg: 21th century is flourishing age in which industry has been developing. So has pollution. 4, 个人经历，传奇故事 5， 统计数据，客观事实 6，提出问题，引起注意 Eg: Is part-time job off campus good for college students?,三，结尾段,1， 总结全文，重申主题 Eg: From what has been discussed above, we may finally draw the conclusion that pollution has brought and will bring more problems to the earth. 2， 提出问题，引出思考 Eg: Computer plays such an important role that it undeniably becomes the biggest concern of the presen