毕业论文教程第二章ppt课件

第2章 毕业论文的数字书写方、标点与格式要求,学习目标 了解毕业论文的书写格式，掌握数字的表达、章节的编码以及标点符号的正确使用。 关键词语 书写格式，数码表达，标点使用 2.1 数字书写方式 在英语论文写作中，数字的写法主要有两种方式：一种是用英文拼写出来，另一种是用阿拉伯数字书写。什么时候用拼写方式，什么时候用数字表示，我们将在下文介绍。 2.1.1 一般数字的书写 1）两词原则 拼写出来的数字如果不超出两个单词，可以用拼写的方式，例如：one, twenty, twenty-nine, one hundred, thirteen hundred, five million(注意，其中用连词符连起来的twenty-nine只算作一个单词)，而one hundred and one 这个数拼出来后有了四个单词，不宜拼写，应写成101。,2）句首原则 一般情况下，句首不宜以阿拉伯数字开始。如果一定要用数字，可把数字改写成单词，但最好还是重新组织句子结构，把数字放到句子靠后的地方。如： (1)103 of the opening-night audience asked for a refund.(误) (2)Of the opening-night audience,103 asked for a refund.(较好) (3)One hundred and three of the opening-night audience asked for a refund.(正) 另外，此原则也适用于日期的写法。 3）量词前的数字 量词前的数字一般用数字形式，不用拼写形式即使数字拼写出来不超过两个单词。例如：16 amperes, 5 milliliters。这类情况多发生在试验数据的报告或比较中。如果不是用于此类目的，文章中的其他数字仍按两词原则处理。 如果量词为缩略词，一律用数字，不用拼写。 如：6g,24km,101bs,3w,6:15p.m,5ml 4)与符号连用 与符号连用时，一律用数字，不用拼写。 如：The design has the capability for continuous operation at 5% overpressure.,5)小数和分数 在书写小数和分数时用数字。 如：The price was reduced by 2.5%(percent) 6)大数目字的表示方法 上百万、千万的大数目字，可在数字后接用相关词。 如：2 million,12.5million,4million,105billion 7)与相关数字连用 与相关的数字连用，即使有的数字拼写出来不超过两个单词，一般也用数字表示。 如：Averagely,3 of the 100 words embodied discrimination against women. 8)标示作品的章节和页码用数字 如：Chapter 5,Page 66,pp.100104 9)标示多卷本作品的卷数用数字 如：Encyclopaedia Britanica,Volume 14 10)标示剧本等作品的行数用数字 如：Hamlet,ACT V,Scene 3,Lines 3540,11)说明比赛的得分用数字 如：21 to 7,98 to 101 12)表示比率用数字 如：a ration of 5 to 3 以上多项原则中，最重要的是两词原则和句首原则。,2.12 时间、日期、年代的数字表达,涉及时间、日期、年代时常要用数字，而且这类数字的书写方式有其特别的规定。 1)表示时间的书写方式。这里要提及的是当“oclock”用来表示一天中某个时刻的时候，要用拼写形式，如ten oclock，不要用10 oclock。 2)英文表示的年、月、日有两种书写方式。一是日、月、年方式，如4 July 1995。另一种是月、日、年方式，如July 4,1995。注意两种方式不能在同一篇文章中混用。另外，月份开头时要在日与年份之间加逗号，如July 4,1995；但在月份与年份之间不加逗号，如July 1995。 3)表示世纪顺序用小写字母拼写，如：the twentieth century。但如果“the twentieth century”用作定语，则须加连字符号，如the twentieth-century thought。类似的例子还有nineteenth and twentieth-century literature。,2.14 罗马数字的表达方式,1)用大写的罗马数字表示大纲中的第一级分类。根据美国现代语言学会的规定，下面的例示在英文书写中有代表性。 . A. 1. a. (1) (a) (b) (2 b. 2. B. .,2)用大写的罗马数字表示姓氏中的排列顺序。 如：John William Elizabeth 3)用小写的罗马数字表示引用文中本来用罗马数字标的页码。这种情况多发生在书籍、辞典或论文中前言、用法说明等页码上。 4)有不少人用罗马数字表示戏剧的幕次和场次。这种情况未成最后定论。用罗马数字表示幕次很常见，而用数字表示场次的也不少。还有用拼写形式表示幕次的。,2.2 论文的标点符号,在论文写作中，除了要求文字表达正确、清除外，还要求正确地使用标点符号。这里只讨论部分容易错用的标点符号。,2.2.1 句号（period）,句号在论文中的一般用法和在一般英文写作中的用法相同，这里不再赘述。但有两点必须注意： 1)英文的句号是一个小圆点，而不是小圆圈。 2)如果缩略语处于一个句子的末尾，只用一个句号。 如：Toms father is working in Washington,D.C.(正) Toms father is working in Washington,D.C(误),2.2.2 叹号（exclamation point）,在毕业论文，乃至所有论文中，应尽量少用感叹号。,2.2.3 逗号（comma）,逗号是写作中用得最频繁的一个标点符号，也是最容易出错的一个标点符号。逗号主要用来表示句中的停顿和各成分之间的分列。 1)用在并列词（语）之间如： The purchase of a large home may mean that the person has a large family,or wants to show off his wealth,or simply regards such a home as a second investment. 2)用在并列句子中。如： Translation is not only a linguistic transference,but also an intercultural communication.,3)在句首状语或状语从句之后，多用逗号。如： Traditionally,the first vowels of the words“merry Mary married”had distinct qualities. In some of these acronyms,we can see that expressions of appraisal and intensification are frequent. To support his point,we offered a report. Once the principal contradiction is grasped,all problems will be readily solved. 4)用于句中插入语前后。如： Those from the European Community,however,formulated the official terminology of the EC. It has been stated,for example,that the teaching of English should promote friendly relations between the peoples of various countries.,2.2.4 分号（semicolon）,与逗号相比，一般认为分号表示的停顿较长，但比句号要短。分号的主要功能如下： 1)分别无并列连词的独立句。如： One is by the congruent use of language;the other is by the metaphorical use of language.,2)分列长而复杂的并且内部含有逗号的多项独立句，即使两者仍有并列连词，也用分号。如： If such a world government is not established by a process of agreement among nations,I believe it will come anyway,and in a much more dangerous form;for war or wars can only result in one power being supreme and dominating the rest of the world by its overwhelming military supremacy.(The Holt) 3)分列长而含有逗号的多项并列成分。如： The organizing concept of the pragmatic metaphor analysis is based on the ideas from systemic theory,such as systems,choices and realizations;text,continuum and variation;and register analysis.,2.2.5 冒号（colon）,冒号在论文写作中主要有三种用法： 1)用来表示例示（证）。如： Use the right verb to complete the sentences. Example:I get dressed(get,give). 2)用来表示解释、说明。如： The plot is founded on deception:the three main characters have secret identities. My grocery list is as follows:bread,butter,meat,eggs,sugar. The fact can lead us to only one conclusion:were putting more cancercausing chemicals into our bodies and theyre doing their work superbly.(The Little,Brown),3)用来引出一段引语，通常这个引语较长而且比较正式。有人认为四行或者更长的引文通常用冒号引出，而不用逗号。如： The French Declaration of the Rights of Man includes these words:“Liberty consists in being able to do anything that does not harm another person.”(The Holt),2.2.6 引号（quotation marks）,英文中的引号有两种形式：双引号和单引号。 1）用双引号引出直接引文。如： Among them,Yan Fu established a three-word criterion of “Faithfulness,Expressiveness and Elegance”. 2) 用单引号引出引文中的引文。如： “In formulating any philosophy,”Woody Allen writes, “the first consideratin must always be:what can we know?.Descartes hinted at the problem when he wrote,My mind can never know my body,although it has become quite friendly with my legs.”(The Little,Brown) 3)用引号引指具有特殊意义的词语。如： They consider the words“theme”and“moral”to be interchangeable. Though the theme of Othello amy be expressed as“Jealousy exacts a terrible cost”,such a statement does not begin to suggest the range and depth of Shakespeares plays.,4)有些作品的标题常用引号表示。如： 小品文：“Chelseys Missing Smile” 短篇小说：“The Rocking-horse Winner” 期刊文章：“The Women Who Was Somebody” 小诗：“To a Lady” 歌谣：“Jingle Bells” 书中章节：“Citizen Rebellion”(Part 6 of Power Struggle) 电视专题：“Night Creatures of the Kalahari”(on Nova) 广播专题：“Cooking with Clams”(on Eating) 如果不属于上述各类作品形式，则不能用引号表示，要用斜体字或下加横线的方式处理。这些作品标题名称包括长篇小说、剧本、长诗、期刊、出版了的演说、编写的小册子读物、电影、长篇音乐作品、视觉艺术作品、电视和电台专题等。有的人用汉语的来表示，是错误的。,5)当引号与其他标点符号一起使用时，下面几点值得注意： (1)不属于长段引文内的冒号和分号都应置于引号之外。如： Taxpayers were pleased with the first of candidates promised“sweeping new reforms”:a balance budget. (2)属于引文的破折号、叹号、逗号、问号都应置于引号内。如： “Yeahwe!”he grunted.“We killed a big one!Wewe killed a bar,we did!.Come on,boys,”he said gruffly.“Arent you happy?” (3)当问号、叹号、破折号不属于引文的原文时，要置于引号之外。如： Why does he“go crazy”? Whatever you do,dont tell“Uncle”! He was always“Capn”“Capn Sherpperton”.,2.2.7 括号（parentheses）,英文括号分两种：一种是圆括号（parentheses），另一种是方括号（brackets）。两种括号各有其用途。 圆括号： 1)用来说明文中项目的排列和顺序。如： Theme is the central and unifying concept of the story.Therefore(a)(b) 2)用来表示事实、数据和生卒年代。如： Abraham Lincoln(18091865)was a great president. The population of Philadephia(now about 1.7 million)has been declining steadily since 1950. 3)用来表示举例说明而又不影响正文的进行。如： A lot of people(quite a few from the lower society,for instance)came to the party. 4)用来标示解说性成分。如： His car(Plymouth Voyager,exactly)cost him $17,815. 5)用来标志不重要的插语。如： Queen Victorias death in 1901(a traumatic event for the British people)more or less officially ended the historical period since named for her. 6)用来标示出处参考。如： (See Chapter 12);(Page 34),方括号： 方括号在英文行文中用的不多，但有两点需要说明： 1)在引文内标示作者自己的意见，以区别于引文的意思。 2)在引文过长又缺少某个部分而难以说明全部情况的时候，用方括号补充所缺部分，如： “Immediately after her wedding,Sarahand her husband followed tradition and went to visit almost everyone who attended the wedding.”,2.2.8 破折号（dash）,破折号可以再一个句子中单独使用，也可两个一起使用，还可以根据需要而使用多个。破折号的用途有下面几种： 1)用于插入成分的前后。如： Suppose he was ten years older than she,and a little set in his ways;a littleperhapsdictatorial at times,and moody. 2)用于总结性的同位成分之前可以表示对破折号前面所描述的一系列现象作一个总结性的归纳。如： Ruthlessness and acute sensitivity,greed and compassionthe main characters contradictory qualities prevent any simple interpretation of the film. 3)有的编辑用破折号来表示项目的分类。如： Capitalize all other words except articles(a,an,and the), prepositions under five letters, conjunctions under five letters unless they are first or last words.,2.29 连字号（hyphen）,连字号主要用于复合词中和单词的移行分解中。这里有两点必须注意：一是不要与汉语中的连接号相混；二是它的长度只有中文半字线的二分之一。,2.2.10 省略号（ellipsis mark）,省略号在论文中用得不多。非用不可时，有三点需要注意： 1)英语中的省略号是三个小圆点。 2)省略号一般不在一段或一句之首，但不是绝对的。 3)在诗文中，如果省略整行，可以用下面的方式处理： Above the quiet dock in mid night, . Is but a childs balloon,forgotten after play.,2.2.11 分隔号（slash）,分隔号一般用于下面三种情况： 1)用来表示分数，尤其在文字处理机上没有这一表示分数的横线的时候。如： 1/2,8/9,1/3,11/2,28/9,31/3 2)用来表示两者（词）之间的选择。如： It must be explained in terms of the relations between the linguistic and/or visual elements of a given discusive information and the discourses. 3)用来给没有按原文格式排列的诗文分行。如： ABOVE THE DOCK Above the quiet dock in mid night/Tangled in the tall masts corded height/Hangs the moon,what seemed so far away/Is but a childs balloon,forgotten after play.T.E.HULME,2.3 论文的格式要求,论文写作在格式上有一定要求。根据美国现代语言学会论文写作手册（MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers）和有关论文写作指南的规定，结合我国的具体情况，现对英语专业毕业论文书写格式提出以下要求。,1)天头和地脚 天头top(upper)margin，即书页上方的空白处。地脚(lower margin)，即书页下边的空白处。关于天头、地脚的格式要求，我们从下面三个方面分述。 (1)标题页 标题页是论文的第一页，写有论文题目、作者姓名、所属部门和论文呈交日期。论文的题目位置在该页的三分之一处稍上的中间位置。如果题目过长，一行写不下，可分作两行，但每行都要居中，而且要隔两个行距。题目写完后，不论多少行，都不要超过该页三分之一处。接下来，在隔六至八行处的中间位置写by或By。再隔两个行距写论文作者的全名。然后，在该页的三分之二稍高的地方写作者所属部门和论文呈交日期。每行行距为两个，留下来的地脚尽量不要少于该页的三分之一。参见图1。,(2)目录、摘要页 天头：在该页纸的第十六个行距处写下目录（contents）或摘要（abstract）字样，并居中。下隔四个行距开始排列目录或摘要。行距均为两个。 地脚：在离该页的底边八个行距处写下本页的最后一行目录或摘要。（摘要一般不超过一页，较长的论文目录有可能超过一页。）然后隔两个行距写页码，居中。参见图2。 (3)正文页 一般有了标题页，可不必在正文开头再写标题，而代之章节编码开头。章节编码（如Chapter 1或Part 1等）卸载离纸头十个行距处，居中。如章节下还有章节标题（如：Introduction），那么，章节标题从章节编码的那一行隔两个行距再书写，居中。然后隔四个行距开始书写正文。没有章节编码的正文页天头一般有十个行距，地脚一般为六个行距。参见图3。,2)边距 边距（margin），即书页左右两边的空白。书页两边的边距各为五个字母的空格为好。美国大学通常要求学生写论文时使用的印刷边距也是如此。这样做一方面版面清晰、整洁、大方；另一方面，让英语写作者习惯这样的排版。边距以左边为主。右边如不好安排时，不必对齐，但最后的一个字母不能超过五个字母的空格间距。参见图3。 3)行距 行距（linespace），即书页中各行之间的距离。在标题页、目录页和正文页等项中，已对一些特殊的行距要求作了介绍。这里主要谈及正文中的行距。参见图3。,美国大学要求学生（包括博士研究生）在写论文时，正文行距为两个。正文中的引文，如果专行排出来，正文与引文之间行距更大（四个行 距），而引文之间则可以只有一个行距。 4）缩进空格 缩进空格（indention），即由于某种原因，要从除掉边距的位置上缩进若干字母再开始书写或打印。这里指的是正文的缩进空格。缩进空格一般有两种情况：每段开头的缩进和引用文的缩进。 每段缩进在英文印刷中有不同的方式。如缩进五个字母的空格，从第六个字母开始书写打印。有的缩进两格。还有的齐头，不缩进。但是在论文写作中，一般要求每段开头缩进五格。 引用文的缩进为十个空格，即从第十一个空格开始书写引文。下一行的引文开头仍和上一行的第一个字母并齐。参见图3.,5）页码 标记页码（pagination）,即给论文的各页码标上号码。论文的页码标示按位置分。有标在书页上方中央的，也有标在右上角的，还有标在书页下方中央的。 如按位置标，标在书页上方中央。离书页顶边八个行距，离下面的正文两个行距。但如下面正好有章节编码，这一面的页码可省去。如标在右上角，天头的距离也是七个行距。右边的边距为五个行距。 在一般情况下，论文的页码用阿拉伯数字标记，并且不标在书页的下方。 如按字体分，除了阿拉伯数字，还有用罗马数字的。罗马数字不能用来标志正文的页码，通常用来标示正文前的页码（如目录页）。摘要页通常不标页码，因为摘要一般不超过一页。目录页的页码位置一般标在书页下方中央。具体位置参看1）的说明。参看图2、图3.,6）注释的格式 注释是对文中某一部分进行解释和说明。为了不打断原文的进行，需要进一步解释说明，便在需要说明的那个部位用阿拉伯数字标记，然后在正文完成后辟一页或数页，按数字的顺序，排列解释和说明。 注释的页码接着正文的页码往下排。如页码在上部中央，第一页注释可省去页码，从下一页开始继续编码。 注释页中央开始注释项的英文单词Notes写在该页上方中央，天头可比正文天头略宽，可有十六个行距。隔十个行距开始注释部分正文，每条注释第一行缩进五格。本文注释的其他行顶格写，即比第一行多伸出五个空格。注释的行距与正文同，即两个行距。注释的地角和边距与正文同。,7）参考文献的格式 参考文献是论文的最后一个部分。参考文献的目录等从英文单词bibliography向下隔十行开始书写或打印。参考文献的地脚边距和行距与正文同。各条参考文献的开头从边距的终点位置后开始写，即离页边五格空格，其他各行都从第一行的起始字母下的位置缩进五个空格开始写。余以类推。,图 1,Questions for Thought/ 思考题 Read the following thesis roughly ,then correct the errors in its writing form,punctuation and serial numbers. Title ( Omitted),一、introduction,The skill of listening with comprehension is an essential part of communication and basic of ESL/EFL learning. Researchers on listening agree that there are many sub-skills making up the general listening skill. Sub-skills include the ability to recognize words; identify syntactic patterns; anticipate the development and conclusion of the speakers utterance; mentally check and challenge the ongoing utterance being listened to; and work out the communicative intention of the speaker, etc.,Considerable attention has been focused on developing effective listening strategies for the ESL/EFL learners and much has been written on which strategies best achieve this goal. OMallkey et al.(1985) identified metacognitive, cognitive and socioaffective strategies.” Semantic strategy” here meant “listeners sttempt to identify content words to make assumptions and expectations about what the speaker means and then search for the function words which will satisfy those assumptions”,According to fry(1977), prediction is one of the most powerful factors in the reception of speech. We should get nowhere at all if we did not know to some extent what to expect. points out that “In comprehending oral messagewe are not just extracting linguistic information, but we are selecting and matching what have been selected against probable messages that we are anticipating.”,Robinett maintains “listening should have as one of its objectives the development of the ability to predict what may be expected next in the stream of speech.” other researchers have also stressed the importance of developing the subskill as prediction for ESL/EFL listeners (Fincchiaro and Bonomo,1973;Deng,1992;Qin,1995;Lu,1996;Li,1997;Wu,et al.,1999),This article offers a definition for prediction in ESL/EFL listening, examines its foundations, draws some insights into its nature, and illustrates how to employ it in pre-listening and while-listening stages and how to repair it in post-listening stage. It thus attempts to help listeners achieve better understanding.,二、What is prediction: the definition, foundations and nature,1. the definition Prediction is a subskill in listening, meaning that listeners use their knowledge about the language, what they are provided with (e.g .title, topic area), their worldly knowledge and experience to foretell the listening texts content and then confirm or repair predicted content so that a better and effective understanding can be achieved.,2 The foundations of prediction Prediction is not wild guessing, but a skill that needs sufficient foundations. First, the linguistic knowledge of English is a prerequisite for prediction. Insufficient vocabularu, grammar and phonetics obviously hinder effective prediction, second, appropriate background knowledge like custom, geography, history, politics and sound awareness of cultural differences between languages can contribute to reasonable predictions.,Language always occurs within a cultural and social setting of some sort, and it must be interpreted in the light of this social and cultural environment. Third, the fact that certain words have the mutual expectancy of other words and that there is usually relevant vocabulary used for a particular topic make prediction possible. For example, part of the meaning of dark is its collocation with night.,This calls for the development of vocabulary sets that collocate with each other so that when listeners hear one word in the set, they are prepared to expect others in the set. For instance, when listeners hear the word bank, they can also expect words like money, cash, loan, interest, checks, travellers checks, deposit, withdraw, etc,If listeners know they will hear a conversation talking place in a court, they may expect words like trail, witness, judge, jury, criminal, guilty, innocent, sentence, etc fourth, information and ideas are usually organized in terms of time, sequence, spatial arrangement or importance. A certain order of a speakers presentation makes it possible for the listeners to follow his/her line of thought.,For instance, the information as to time, location, cause, casualties,And damage would most probably be provided of an accident or natural disaster if talked about. And last, the fact that the speakers must be referring to something they will be able to make sense of or that the speakers utterances are relevant to the ongoing discourse build a strong foundation for logical prediction.,3 the nature of prediction Prediction is also a key process in understanding spoken language, as researchers have shown. Sheerin points out that native speakers, when they listen, use their perception of the key features of the context and their worldly knowledge to limit the range of possible utterances they are about to hear. This ability to set up predictions during pre-listening and while-listening indicates that they do not have to catch and actively process every phoneme, syllable, word, phrase,or even stress ,rhythm , or tone group of the message. They can simply process the message for deviations from what was expected, thus reducing their memory load to process the incoming message more effectively and set up further predictions. For this reason, it is important that all listening material for ESL/EFL learners be fully contextualized so that their comprehension task is not made more difficult than that of native speakers in normal interaction.,Sheerin also points out that listeners are able to predict and interpret language by analogy with experience and their knowledge of the language. In other words, they have a range of stereotyped expectation of particular people, places, situations and tect types to refer to and use as points of comparison with what is being heard. For example, listeners about to hear a narrative can predict it will have a beginning and an edd, and will consist of a sequence of actions and reactions which will stand in the relation of cause and effect to one another. If, furthermore, the listeners perceive that the narrative concerns ”a race”, then they will call up a mental schema of “race” and thereby predict that there will be a start to the race, a number of competitors will take part, a winner will finish first, and so on. Below we will first discuss how to develop and employ prediction in the pre-and-while-listening stages, and then discuss how to “repair” prediction in the post-listening stage.,三、how to develop and employ prediction in the three listening stages 1 pre-listening prediction There are two reasons why language teachers should encourage learners to set up useful predictions and activate relevant concepts and experiences in their minds during pre-listening period. First, if the listening material comes in the form of a video tape or an audio tape, the listeners task is so much more complex than it would be in a face to face interaction that we need to supply as many contextual clues as possible to compensate for this artificially difficult listening situation. Second, some culture specitic features of the