英语专业英语语言文学本科毕业论文.doc

南华大学外国语学院毕业论文1 Introduction Language is one of the decisive factors that enable man different from other animals to live on earth. Without language we can not learn, and solve problems. Any simple tasks require language. Without language it is difficult to refer to anything away from us in space and time. Language allows human beings to adapt to changing circumstances far more quickly than would be achieved by evolution. Human language is infinitely versatile. Honeybees have a remarkable way of letting others know the direction in which a source of nectar lies and how far away it is by means of a dance, but they could not begin to discuss the merits of other food stuffs or alternative ways of constructing their homes. In short, the nature and the dominance of the way of life that the human race possesses are due in very large part to the fact that human beings can speak. Since we have seen the significance of language, then, how might we define it? An earlier American linguist, Edward Sapir, gives a definition.He supports the hypothesis that language relates to communication between human beings. To him language does not include such instinctive forms of communication as smiling and cries of pain. His definition that Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. For comparison we may look at a definition given by a modern British linguist,David Crystal, who wrote the following:The discussion may be summarized by referring to language as human vocal noise (or the graphic representation of this noise in writing) used systematically and conventionally by a community for purpose of communication. Thus this definition also proposes communication as the principal function oflanguage. What it does not do is the attempt to specify what is communicated.2 Literature RelevanceThe theory of this paper is mainly about the definition and the function of the context,and its influences on translation. To finish this paper, Newmark, Peters theory and Nida Eugene A.s on the definition and the function of the context, and the theory of the contexts influences on translation of Ye miao, Yue jinsheng, Zhang peiji gave me a great help. We should first understand the meaning of the context, generally speaking, it can be understood as an environment where the communicators communicate, the environment provided by the verbal language itself, which includes the level significance of language, language structure and the logical relationship between sentences provided by the context which constitutes the speech units. Can any speech activity separated from the linguistic contest exists!After knowing the definition of the context, we should have a general understanding of the functions of the context. The paper gives two main functions of the context: restrictive function, and the explanation function. Both of the two functions have been given detailed explanation in the paper. Finally, we should have a clear sense of the contexts influences on translation. The paper gives three main influences:the environment of context influences the ideational meaning of the same word, the linguistic factors that influence the translators and non-linguistic contexts influence on English-Chinese translation.3 On Context3.1 The significance of the study of contextAs a kind of information system, language is unique to human society. The communication with language- the transmitting and receiving of information, occurs only in particular environments and are influenced by and subject to them as well. These actual environments are the basis of humans social communication; people using language in society all communicate on specific occasions, in a specific range, for specific purposes, and with specific people. In other words, these actual environments are the content surrounding a word or a passage in written works and speech acts and the social and natural environments, including social status, sex, age of the speaker and the hearer, as well as their geographic, cultural, linguistic, ideological, and social, customary background. This actural environment is technically termed context, including linguist context (co-text), situational context, and cultural context. The status and value of context is becoming more and more important in the study of modern linguistics. Why do so many branches of linguistics such as socio-linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, stylistics, and rhetoric all take up context as an important subject? Why is it necessary for people to refer to context when they express or understand a word, a sentence or even a text? Why a sentence that is appropriate on this occasion is inappropriate on that one? It is all because people are controlled by the context; no matter they are conscious or not. Context is the environment in which language is understood, used and develops.It restrains language and determines its destiny.3.2 The Definition of Context and Semanteme The purpose of language is communication, so any speech activities are carried on under specific circumstances.Such environment can be interpreted as the context of a big topic, context of social and cultural in different time and defferent space. Both sides of communication share the information of the background context ( Ye Miao, 2000); Small enough we can understand such environment as proposed by Han Lide context of scene, context of mode and context of the communicators; Then smaller it can to be understood as the context provided by the verbal language itself, which includes the level significance of language, language structure and the logical relationship between sentences provided by the context which constitutes the speech units. Can any speech activity separated from the linguistic contest exists! In determining the meaning of words, we consider not only the language itself from the linguistic point of view, but also take into account the impact of the non-linguistic factors of its illocutionary extended meaning, so as to determine the semantics and should be accurate. Context determines the semantic, and this version has been publicly known to all who occupy in translation. Yue Jinshengs analysis of the less amount of translation and how to compensate the amount by cultural compensation in the less the amount of translation and cultural compensation, is actually discoursing the contest determining the semantic and further semantic compensation. In his opinion, The less amount of translation owes to the cultural differences caused by the original source language and the target language culture(Yue Jinsheng 1999). That is to say, the determination of the semanteme must depend on the cultural contest. On the basis of grasping the context information, and establishing the semantics, when considering the issues of amplification and omission of translating, the randomness will be greatly reduced , the words added would be No that word but has its meaning, and the words omitted would naturally beno more word than its meaning.(Zhang Peiji, 1983)。3.3 Functions of Context The reason why context has become a popular subject of study and caused attention in the linguistic field recently is the importance of context itself. The importance would be heightened as we probe deeper into the urgency and inestimable practical value, however, is the direct essence of it. The teaching linguistic and the development of modern information science reason. Language call for advanced theory, scientific description of context and especially the regularity of language in realistic use. Context is like the loving mother as well as strict father: the former make words said or written possible while father disciplines all their children, making them sensible and reasonable. In realistic linguistic activities, even the simplest word has its mother and father. Their relation is the main question for discussion in the study of context. What kind of functions does context have in the actual study of language? And what are the characteristics and meanings of these functions? The following is the explanation.3.3.1 Restrictive Function On scope: language activity is always restricted in certain context scope. (i)Entire restriction means the context has an entire restriction on all the language activities. Because the scales of language activities are not the same, the contexts that restrict them are also different in size. It can be the whole human society, or just a sentence or even a word. Generally speaking, context that has entire restrictive function in a literary work should be its setting, its theme, the writers productive motivation and his or her style, all of which run through the whole work and influence its content and artistic expressions. The subject or theme or the adverbial modifier at the beginning of a sentence can restrict the structure or the content of this sentence. Take the sentence Children were singing and dancing. for instance. Although the meaning is clear, readers would feel there is something missing here, e.g. the place where they were playing. Using the context theory to explain this, we would know that if the doer, time, or occasion of a specific activity is not clear, the language will lose its backing and the insufficiency of the information will arise. (ii)Part restriction means that context only has the restrictive function on some parts of the linguistic activities. Lets first draw an analogy. If the central governments control of the whole country is an entire restriction, then the right the local government has is a part restriction. Take Lu Xuns The New Year Sacrifice for example, if the political system, the clan, the husband and religion, the feudalism and patriarchy are the entire restrictions that cause the life-long tragedy of Xianglins wife, then A-maos death is a part restriction. Though he died tragically and gave Xianglins wife a big blow, it is not the basic factor that puts her to death. As we have said before, the subject, theme, and adverbial modifier at the beginning of a sentence can be the context that entirely restrict the sentence, the attribution, however usually has the part restrictive function. On direction: contexts restriction usually bears some directive quality (i)Preceding and following restriction: such as the preceding ellipsis and following ellipsis.For example: A: When did you get to New York? B: (I got to New York) on 15 th. A: When (did you get to New York)? B: I got to New York on 15 th. The preceding context and following context here are all the restrictive conditions for the ellipsis. (ii )Forward and backward restriction means the linguistic context of an article or the words before or after a particular word of a talk. In an article, the beginning part usually restricts backward, while the ending part usually restricts forward. In an argumentation, the arguments setting forth is usually backward, and the conclusion is forward. Narration is usually backward. Generally speaking, in oral and written language, backward restriction occupies the dominant place. (iii) Internal and external restriction means the relations between the internal factors and external factors of linguistic activities. The introduction of the time background of an article or the scenery description that can display characters psychology and personality are all types of internal and external restrictions. External restriction mainly refers to the influences those communicators factors have on the linguistic activity. For example, in an important meeting, the character, ideas and capability of an authority would usually affect the process of the meeting. On content: (i)Plot restriction mainly rests with portraying characters images and revealing objects nature. This kind of restriction plays an important role especially in novels. How the expression of language suits the change of plot is plot restrictions requirement for language. (ii)Cultural restriction usually concerns the whole social environment where the linguistic activity takes place, including political, economic ideals, customary influences and personal, cultural and educational accomplishment as well. Do as Romans do and the Chinese saying“对什么人说什么话”are the expressions of cultural restriction. (iii) Situational restriction is the environmental restriction on specific occasions. For instance, it is forbidden to say dirty things on table and say inauspicious words on weddings. On pattern: (i)Structural restriction is the structures of the language and their demands on linguistic activities. For example, adverbials cannot modify nouns in Chinese, which, however, is right in Japanese. (ii)Stylistic restriction means that the style of an article restricts the linguistic actions. Any type of writing has its own style. These styles are not only the principles we should follow when we write, but also the basis we should draw support from when we read or study. (iii) Type of writing restriction includes two sides: personal style and oral or written language. Every writer, even every person has his or her own language style. Some are good at using adjectives and some do well in the usage of verbs.3.3.2 Explanation Function Explanation function shows contexts function of explaining some phenomena inlanguage and in its study. Semantic explanation: (i)Explain the meaning beyond the word, which is neither the deep-structural meaning nor the meaning of dictionary entry. It is the new meaning a word acquires in a specific sentence. (ii)Explain the situational meaning, which is, apparently, the meaning generated in specific situation. Take the sentence Oh my god! Its so hot here. The hearer would probably go to open the window according to the situational meaning of the sentence, though the speaker does not ask him to do so. Grammatical explanation: Some languages, such as Chinese, do not have inflexions, and to distinguish the parts of speech of words and to explain grammar rules and grammatical phenomena all depend on the help of content. (i)How to explain parts of speech and morphological features is always a controversial topic. For example, in Chinese, many words can be used both as verbs and nouns. Only in context can they be determined. (ii )Explain grammatical rules. Since some ungrammatical sentences are acceptable in certain contexts, it is important to adapt a grammatical rule to all kinds of contexts if we want to study and establish it. (iii)Explain grammatical phenomena. One scholar once noted that in Chinese, if the object has a number modifier, there must be word“了”after the verb. For example,“他买一本小说”sounds unnatural while“他买了一本小说”is better. However,“他买一本小说”is fine in the sentence“书店里挤满了人，你买一本字典，他买一本小说”.So, attention should be paid to context in the study of any language phenomena or rules, not to mention translation. Rhetorical explanation:Rhetoric is the art of using language and could never exist without context. ( i )Explain rhetorical phenomena. Lets look at this sentence:“月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。”()How can the subject lights be followed by the verb“泻”?In this context, it is actually not only a grammatical but a vivid expression. (Peng, 1998) (ii )Explain rhetorical effect. A: So what can you do to me? Eat me? B: No, I cant. Im the Huis. The above dialogue would be difficult to understand without the help of cultural context: the Huis never eat pork. What B means is that A is a pig. (iii)Explain rhetoric rules. Respect the context and take the advantage of explaining rhetoric should be the first principle of rhetoric.4.How Context Influences English-Chinese Translation4.1 The environment of contest influences the ideational meaning of the same word Since context is the environment where language lives, then, translation, as the transference from one language to another, cannot be separated from context. Under different contest environments, the same word or expression may have different interpretations.For example:a. The doctor is performing an operation on a patient for appendicitis.医生正在为病人施行阑尾手术。 b. These speculators carry on black market operations. 这些投机商在进行黑市交易。 c. The military operations embody the tactical use of atomic weapons. 这场军事演习体现了原子武器的战术应用。 d. Our class learns the law of four operations. 我们班在学习加减乘除四则运算。 e. However, by adding certain attachments to the planer, the same will lend itself to special machining operations on special work. 然而，在刨床上增加一些附件，就可以对特殊工作进行专门加工。 From the example, we can easily get the idea that as a representative symbol of mankinds activities, contest determine the range of ideational meaning.4.2 The linguistic factors that influence the translator Generally speaking, in translating process, the main objects the translator pursues intentionally are nothing more than these two: the perfect unification of forms and contents between the original texts and their translations and the whole artistic characteristics represented in the unification. It seems that it is only the linguistic factors that influence the translator. However, if we delve into the depth of our study-the reproduction of the style and effect, we would realize the importance of the non-linguistic factors, which is clearly exemplified in the following versions of a well-known saying of Benjamin Franklin. Liu Zhongde has said that words have not definite meaning and translating has not definite ways. This explains the key problem of translation: context provides