世界中世纪史近代史中英文译名.doc

AAlbigenses阿尔比派Albigenses, followers of the single most important heresy within the Christian church during the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century). They were named after the town of Albi (Latin Albiga), in southern France, a major center of the movement.Aquitaine阿奎丹Aquitaine (Latin Aquitania), traditional name for southwestern France, first used by Julius Caesar in the 1st century bc. Under the Romans, the province of Aquitania extended almost as far north as the Loire River. Novempopulana (Gascony), the portion south of the Gironde, was made a separate province in the late 3rd century. The remainder became a separate kingdom in the Frankish period. The title duke of Aquitaine was held by the counts of Poitiers from the 10th to the 12th century. The last duke was William X. When his daughter, Eleanor of Aquitaine, married the heir to the throne of England in 1152, the area became an English possession and remained so until the 15th century, when it was annexed by France at the end of the Hundred Years War. From the 13th century until the French Revolution, Aquitaine was usually known as Guyenne. The name Aquitaine was revived in the 1960s to designate the economic region comprising the French departments of Pyrnes-Atlantiques, Landes, Gironde, Dordogne, and Lot-et-Garonne. Area, 41,309 sq km (15,949 sq mi). Population 3,123,000 (2007 estimate).Saint Thomas Aquinas托马斯阿奎那Saint Thomas Aquinas,sometimescalledthe Angelic Doctor and the Prince of Scholastics (1225-1274), Italian philosopher and theologian, whose works have made him the most important figure in Scholastic philosophy and one of the leading Roman Catholic theologians.Arius阿里乌斯Arius (of Alexandria) (256-336), early Christian leader, founder of Arianism, a Christian heresy that denied the full divinity of Jesus Christ. Arius was educated in the theological school of Antioch (now Antakya, Turkey) under the distinguished Greek scholar Lucian. The school in Antioch, where Arius probably derived a basis for his doctrine, was noted for its emphases on a historical and inductive method of religious investigation and on the unity of the Godhead, or Holy Trinity. The school was also known for its tendency to regard Christ as a created being, subordinate to God the Father.Attila阿提拉Attila, called the Scourge of God (circa 406-53), king of the Huns (circa 433-53). He is called Etzel by the Germans and Ethele by the Hungarians.Anglicanism安立甘宗Anglo-Saxon盎格鲁撒克逊人Peace of Augsburg奥格斯堡和约The religious civil war ended with the religious Peace of Augsburg in 1555. Its terms provided that each of the rulers of the German states, which numbered about 300, choose between Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism and enforce the chosen faith upon the rulers subjects. War of the Austrian Succession奥地利王位继承战争War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), conflict caused by the rival claims for the hereditary dominions of the Habsburg family. Ottoman Empire奥斯曼土耳其帝国Ottoman Empire,dynasticstatecentered in what is now Turkey, founded in the late 13th century and dismantled in the early 20th century. At its height in the mid-1500s, at the end of the reign of Sleyman I, the Ottoman Empire controlled a vast area extending from the Balkan Peninsula to the Middle East and North Africa. The empire went into slow decline after Sleyman, and by the early 1900s it controlled only Asia Minor (the Anatolia region of present-day Turkey) and parts of the Balkans and the Middle East. The Ottomans lost even more territory during World War I (1914-1918). Allied troops occupied the empire from the end of the war until 1922, when nationalist forces under Mustafa Kemal (later Atatrk) drove them out; Kemal abolished the empire later that year and proclaimed the Republic of Turkey in 1923.Otto I奥托一世Otto I (Holy Roman Empire), called Otto the Great (912-973), Holy Roman emperor (962-973), king of Germany (936-973), the son of the German king Henry I.BBavaria巴伐利亚Hundred Years War百年战争Hundred Years War,armedconflictbetween France and England during the years from 1337 to 1453. The Hundred Years War was a series of short conflicts, broken intermittently by a number of truces and peace treaties. It resulted from disputes between the ruling families of the two countries, the French Capetians (see Capet) and the English Plantagenets, over territories in France and the succession to the French throne.Otto von Bismarck俾斯麦Otto von Bismarck(1815-1898),Prusso-German statesman, who was the architect of German unification and the first chancellor (1871-1890) of the united nation. Through Bismarcks efforts, Germany was transformed from a loose collection of small states into the German Empire, the strongest industrialized nation in continental Europe. A unified Germany permanently changed the European balance of power. Though Bismarck dominated German and European politics for nearly 30 years, his career was a series of paradoxes. An ultraconservative, he initiated social and welfare reform. A master politician, he despised parliaments and parties. A Prussian patriot, he created a German empire.Berbers柏柏尔人Byzantine Empire拜占庭帝国Byzantine Empire,easternpartofthe Roman Empire, which survived after the breakup of the Western Empire in the 5th century ad. Its capital was Constantinople (now İstanbul, Turkey).Belisarius贝利撒留Belisarius (505?-65), Byzantine general, one of the great military leaders of history, born in Illyria. He was given command by Emperor Justinian I.Peter the Great or Peter I彼得一世Peter the Great or Peter I(1672-1725),tsarand, later, emperor of Russia (1682-1725), who is linked with the Westernization of Russia and its rise as a great power.Burgundy勃垦地Burgundy, several historic kingdoms, counties, duchies, and a province situated within France. During the 5th century ad, the Burgundians, a Germanic tribe, invaded and established the first kingdom of Bourgogne in France. The kingdom expanded until it included most of what is now southeastern France and part of present-day Switzerland. The Burgundians were conquered in 534 by the Merovingian rulers of the Franks and were later absorbed into the Carolingian Empire. In 843 Burgundy was divided between Charles I of France (later Charles II, Holy Roman emperor) and his brother, Emperor Lothair I. In 879 the kingdom of Provence, or Cisjurane Burgundy, was organized in the south, and in 888 the kingdom of Trans-Jurane Burgundy was created in the north. Two other divisions, the duchy of Burgundy and the Free County of Burgundy, or Franche Comt, were also established in the 9th century. In 933 the two kingdoms were united as the second kingdom of Burgundy, with the capital at Arles. In 1033 the kingdom was annexed by Conrad II, Holy Roman emperor. Also known as the kingdom of Arles, Burgundy was ceded to France in 1378, and the kingdom ceased to exist as a separate state.Giovanni Boccaccio薄伽丘Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-75), Italian writer and humanist, one of the great authors of all time.Simn Bolvar玻利瓦尔Simn Bolvar(1783-1830),SouthAmerican revolutionary, military leader, and politician known as the Liberator for his leading role in the wars of Spanish American Independence. More than anyone else, Bolvar was responsible for the independence of five countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Despite his success in leading these nations to independence, Bolvar never achieved his goal of creating a federation of Spanish American nations, and he died an unpopular figure because of his attempts to establish strong central governments in the nations he led to independence. Today most Spanish Americans hold Bolvar in high regard for his role as a leader of independencePrague布拉格Britons布列吞人CBenefice采邑Benefice, in the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), a grant of land from a king to a baron or from a baron to a subordinate vassal. The donor or overlord was called the benefactor, while the recipient was known as the beneficiary. In return for a benefice, the vassal was expected to perform certain services for the benefactor. Use of the term benefice has survived in the church to the present time. In this case, the services due from the land go to the maintenance of the church and its rector, who receives the tithes (contributions to the church). During the Middle Ages, monasteries succeeded in obtaining many benefices on the condition that they supply a deputy to perform the services of the church in the parish. This deputy was known as the vicar to the rector of the benefice. The rector drew the great tithe (wheat) and the vicar received the lesser tithes (meat, vegetables, and other products). At the time of the dissolution of the monasteries in England during the Reformation (16th century), the great tithes went to the new feudal barons, and the vicar was left as the recipient of the lesser tithes. Gradually the tithes changed to cash payments, although tithe barns exist to the present day. In the Church of England, tithes were abolished entirely in 1940 by an act of Parliament.Charles Martel查理马特Charles Martel (688?-741), Carolingian ruler of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia (in present northeastern France and southwestern Germany). Charles, whose surname means “the hammer,” was the son of Pepin of Herstal and the grandfather of Charlemagne. Pepin was mayor of the palace under the last kings of the Merovingian dynasty. After Pepin died in 714, Charles, an illegitimate son, was imprisoned by his fathers widow, but he escaped and was proclaimed mayor of the palace by the Austrasians. A war between Austrasia and the Frankish kingdom of Neustria (now part of France) followed, and at the end of it Charles became the undisputed ruler of all the Franks. Although he was engaged in wars against the Alamanni, Bavarians, and Saxons, his greatest achievements were against the Muslims from Spain, who invaded France in 732. Charles defeated them near Poitiers at the Battle of Tours in which the Muslim leader, Abd-ar-Rahman, the emir of Spain, was killed. The progress of Islam, which had filled all Christendom with alarm, was thus checked for a time. Charles drove the Muslims out of the Rhne valley in 739, when they had again advanced into France as far as Lyon, leaving them nothing of their possessions north of the Pyrenees beyond the Aude River. Charles died in Quierzy, on the Oise River, leaving the kingdom divided between his two sons, Carloman and Pepin the Short.Charlemagne查理曼Charlemagne(742?-814),inLatin Carolus Magnus (Charles the Great), king of the Franks (768-814) and emperor of the Romans (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included almost all of western and central Europe and he presided over a cultural and legal revival that came to be known as the Carolingian Renaissance. His empire did not long survive his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European entities: West Francia became modern-day France, and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the modern state of Germany. Charlemagnes close alliance with the popes, the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church, also established a precedent for subsequent ties between medieval popes and kings.Justinian查士丁尼Justinian I(483-565),calledThe Great, Byzantine emperor (527-65), who extended Byzantine rule in the West, beautified Constantinople (present-day İstanbul), and completed the codification of Roman law. His full name was Flavius Petrus Sabgatius Justinianus. The Justinian Code查士丁尼法典The Justinian Code, or Corpus Juris Civilis, was a mammoth legal project undertaken by 6th-century Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor Justinian I. The work incorporated, updated, and clarified the Roman law that had come before. Previous acts that were not incorporated into the Code were declared invalid. The code consisted of four parts: the Codex clarified and updated past imperial statutes; the Digesta interpreted and updated past legal decisions; the Institutiones was a handbook for student lawyers; and the Novellae was a collection of Justinians laws that were issued after publication of the Codex. This excerpt from the Digesta demonstrates the literary technique of the code, which used such devices as a conversation and examples drawn from life to illustrate legal points. Here, two pedagogic figures discuss laws concerning theft.DContinental Congress大陆议会Continental Congress,Americanintercolonial assemblage of delegates, which evolved into the de facto revolutionary government that directed the war for independence. The First Continental Congress convened in Carpenters Hall, Philadelphia, on September 5, 1774, to consider and act on the situation arising from the so-called Intolerable Acts, passed by the British Parliament in retaliation for the Boston Tea Party.Magna Carta大宪章Magna Carta(Latin,“GreatCharter”), document sealed by King John of England on June 15, 1215, in which he made a series of promises to his subjects that he would govern England and deal with his vassals according to the customs of feudal law (see Feudalism). Over the course of centuries, these promises have required governments in England (and in countries influenced by English tradition) to follow the law in dealing with their citizens.Leonardo da Vinci达芬奇Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519),Florentine artist, one of the great masters of the High Renaissance, celebrated as a painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist. His profound love of knowledge and research was the keynote of both his artistic and scientific endeavors. His innovations in the field of painting influenced the course of Italian art for more than a century after his death, and his scientific studiesparticularly in the fields of anatomy, optics, and hydraulicsanticipated many of the developments of modern science.Vasco da Gama达伽马Vasco da Gama(1469?-1524),Portuguese explorer and navigator, who was the first person to reach India from Europe by a sea route. Da Gama was born in Sines, in southwestern Portugal. He joined the Portuguese navy at a young age and participated in the wars against the Spanish kingdom of Castile. Little else is known of his early life.Taika reforms大化改新Nosignificantinstitutional changes occurred, however, until 645. In that year, the Yamato prince Naka no Oe (later the ruler Tenji) engineered a coup that ended the power of the Soga at court. Naka no Oe then set about consolidating the power of the central government, drawing up a series of reforms in 645 and 646 with the help of scholars and monks who had studied in China. The Taika reforms, as they came to be known, were intended to undercut the influence of the powerful clan chieftains. To do this, the reforms abolished the clan chieftains control over local land and people, dispatched provincial officials to supplant them, and promulgated a new system of ranks, taxation, and administration. These reforms marked the beginning of the conversion of the Yamato ruler from a great lord (taikun) to an emperor (tenn).Dante Alighieri但丁Dante Alighieri(1265-1321),Italian poet, and one of the supreme figures of world literature, who was admired for the depth of his spiritual vision and for the range of his intellectual accomplishment.Edo Period or Tokugawa Period德川时期（Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616),德川家康）Edo Period or Tokugawa Period,periodofJapanesehistory that lasted from 1603 to 1867, when the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns (military dictators) ruled Japan. It is named after the Tokugawa capital of Edo (modern Tokyo) and is also known as the Tokugawa period.Ren Descartes笛卡尔（I think, therefore I am.我思故我在） Ren Descartes(1596-1650),Frenchphilosopher, scientist, and mathematician, sometimes called the father of modern philosophy.Reichstag帝国议会（Reichstag Fire国会纵火案）Landlord and Tenant佃户Landlord and Tenant,inthelawofrealproperty, the relationship between two parties created by a lease. The lease is a contract under which one party, called landlord or lessor, who has superior title to the property, grants possession and use of the property for a limited term to the other party, who is called tenant or lessee. The landlord need not be the actual owner of the property, but may be a lessee granting a sublease to another tenant and keeping the right to reassume possession of the property either at the end of a specified period or sooner if the subtenant breaches a condition of the lease, such as by failure to pay rent.Tudor Dynasty都铎王朝Tudor, name of the dynasty that occupied the throne of England from 1485 to 1603. The house was founded by the Welsh nobleman Owen Tudor, who married Catherine of Valois, the widow of the English king Henry V. Their eldest son, Edmund Tudor, married Margaret Beaufort, a descendant of John of Gaunt, son of King Edward III. In 1485 Edmund and Margarets son, Henry, killed Richard III of the house of York and became Henry VII, the first Tudor monarch. The successive Tudor sovereigns were Henry VIII and his son and two daughters, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I; the three died childless. The Tudors reunited the country after a period of civil strife and made the English church independent of the pope. They were followed in royal succession by the Stuart family.Declaration of Independence独立宣言Declaration of Independence,documentinAmerican history used by the 13 British North American colonies to proclaim their independence from Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence was adopted in final form on July 4, 1776. It can be divided into three parts: a statement of principle concerning the rights of man and the legitimacy of revolution, a list of specific grievances against Englands King George III, and a formal claim of independence.Turgot杜