Implementing BusinessIT Solutions实施商业IT解决方案

ImplementingBusiness/ITSolutionsLearningObjectivesUsethesystemsdevelopmentprocessoutlinedinthischapterandthemodelofIScomponentsfromChapter1asproblem–solvingframeworkstohelpyouproposeinformationsystemssolutionstosimplebusinessproblems.Describeandgiveexamplestoillustratehowyoumightuseeachofthestepsoftheinformationsystemsdevelopmentlifecycletodevelopandimplementabuinessinformationsystem.LearningObjectivesExplainhowprototypingcanbeusedasaneffectivetechniquetoimprovetheprocessofsystemsdevelopmentforendusersandISspecialists.Understandthebasicsofprojectmanagementanditsimportancetoasuccessfulsystemsdevelopmenteffort.Identifytheactivitiesinvolvedintheimplementationofnewinformationsystems.LearningObjectivesCompareandContrastthefourbasicinformationsystemconversionstrategies.Describeseveralevaluationfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredinevaluatingtheacquisitionofhardware,software,andISservices.Section1DevelopingBusinessSystemsI.ISDevelopment

ApplyingtheSystemsApproachtoISdevelopmentTheSystemsApproachisasystematicwaytodevelopasolutiontoaproblemII.TheSystemsApproach

UsesasystemsorientationtodefiningandsolvingproblemsandopportunitiesProblemSolving–therearespecificstepsinsolvinganyproblemRecognize/DefineaProblemorOpportunity–recognizeitexistsDevelopandEvaluateAlternativeSystemSolutions–whatarethedifferentwaystosolvethisproblem?SelecttheBestSystemSolution–decidewhichalternativeisbestDesigntheSelectedSystemSolution–designthesystemforthechosensolutionImplementandEvaluatetheSuccessoftheDesignedSystem–putthesolutionintoeffectandmonitorresultsfortheoutcomeII.TheSystemsApproach

SystemsThinking–the“FifthDiscipline”–seeingthesystemcontextSeetheInterrelationshipsamongthesystemsratherthanlinearcause-and-effectchainsSeetheProcessofchangeamongthesystemsratherthandiscrete‘snapshots’ofchangeII.TheSystemsApproach

SystemsThinking补充:SystemThinkingandCLDWhenaproblemsymptomappears,twooptionspresentthemselves:1)applyashort-termfixtothesymptom,or2)identifyandapplyalonger-termfixtothefundamentalissue.Thesecondoptionislessattractivebecauseitinvolvesagreatertimedelayandprobablyadditionalcostbeforetheproblemsymptomisrelieved.However,applyingashort-termfix,asaresultofrelievingtheproblemsymptomssooner,reducesthedesiretoidentifyandapplyamorepermanentfix.Oftentheshort-termfixalsoinducesasecondaryunintendedside-effectthatfurtherunderminesanyeffortstoapplyalong-termfix.Notethattheshort-termfixonlyrelievesthesymptoms,itdoesnotfixtheproblem.Thus,thesymptomswilleventuallyre-appearandhavetobeaddressedagain.ThisSystemsArchetypewasformallyidentifiedinAppendix2ofTheFifthDisciplinebyPeterSenge(1990).TheCausalLoopDiagram(CLD)isshown.ExploringShiftingtheBurdenwithCreditCardDebtTheCLDforthissituationmatchestheShiftingtheBurdenarchetype,asshownwiththesymptomaticsolutionatthetopandthefundamentalsolutionatthebottom.Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude:Makinguplosttimeforhomeworkbynotsleeping(andthencontrollinglackofsleepwithstimulants)牺牲睡觉时间写功课Borrowingmoneytocoveruncontrolledspending借钱还债而非控制花费Feelingbetterthroughtheuseofdrugs(dependencyistheunintendedside-effect)依赖药物Takingpainrelieverstoaddresschronicpainratherthanvisitingyourdoctortotrytoaddresstheunderlyingproblem对慢性疼痛靠止痛药而非找出病灶Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude(2):Improvingcurrentsalesbyfocusingonsellingmoreproducttoexistingcustomersratherthanexpandingthecustomerbase注重短期销售而非扩大客户基础Improvingcurrentsalesbycannibalizingfuturesalesthroughdeepdiscounts透过折扣提前销售(超售)Firefightingtosolvebusinessproblems,e.g.,slappingalow-quality–anduntested–fixontoaproductandshippingitoutthedoortoplacateacustomer应急处理Repeatedlyfixingnewproblemsyourselfratherthanproperlytrainingyourstafftofixtheproblems–thisisaspecialformknownas“shiftingtheburdentotheintervener”whereyouaretheintervenerwhoisinadvertentlyerodingthecapabilitiesandconfidenceofyourstaff(theunintendedside-effect)无法培养新人Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude

(3):Outsourcingcorebusinesscompetenciesratherthanbuildinginternalcapacity(alsoshiftingtheburdentotheintervener,inthiscase,totheoutsourceprovider)外包核心业务Implementinggovernmentprogramsthatincreasetherecipient’sdependencyonthegovernment,e.g.,welfareprogramsthatdonotattempttosimultaneouslyaddresslowunemploymentorlowwages(alsoshiftingtheburdentotheintervener,inthiscase,tothegovernment)接受政府贴补III.SystemsAnalysisandDesign

TheprocessofdesigningandimplementinganIS–Object-orientedorLifeCycleapproachesTheSystemsDevelopmentLifeCycle–amultistep,iterativeprocesstodesigningsystems,verypopular,5Phases:Investigation,Analysis,Design,Implementation,MaintenanceIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopmentProcess

TheSystemsDevelopmentLifeCycleIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopment Process

Systemsdevelopmentcanbeverycostly,investigationsaremadetodeterminewhethertoproceedFeasibilityStudies–identifyneeds,resources,costs,benefitsOperationalFeasibility–willtheproposedsystemfitexistingbusinessenvironmentandobjectives?TechnicalFeasibility–degreetowhichcurrenttechnicalresourcescanbeappliedtothenewsystemHumanFactorsFeasibility–assessthedegreeofapproval/resistancetothenewsystemIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopment Process

EconomicFeasibility–theextenttowhichtheproposedsystemwillprovidepositiveeconomicbenefitstotheorganizationCost/BenefitAnalysis–dothebenefitsjustifythecosts?TangibleCosts/Benefits–canbecalculated/quantified(hardware,software,increaseinpayroll)IntangibleBenefits–hardtocalculate(customerapproval,politicalfeedback)Legal/PoliticalFeasibility–whatarethelegal/politicalramificationsofthenewsystem?IV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopmentProcess

FeasibilityFactorsV.SystemsAnalysis

AdetailedstudyofthecurrentsystemandorganizationalneedsOrganizationalAnalysis–youmusthaveathoroughunderstandingoftheorganizationtomakethesystemworkwellAnalysisofthePresentSystem–“thosewhofailtostudyhistoryaredoomedtorepeatit”,acompleteunderstandingofthecurrentsystemiscriticalLogicalAnalysis–createlogicalmodelsthecurrentsystem,WHATthesystemdoeswithoutregardtoHOWFunctionalRequirementsAnalysisandDetermination–whatInformationisrequiredforeachbusinessactivityandwhatProcessingisrequiredinthesystemPrometric:UnderstandingApplicationPerformanceWhatisPrometric’sproduct?Whatproductmakesallthispossible?Howdoproblemsinthisproductaffecttheirentireoperation?WhatdoesAPMdo?WhatweretheresultsofusingAPM?补充：如何发现需求

Requirementsdiscovery–theprocessandtechniquesusedbysystemsanalyststoidentifyorextractsystemproblemsandsolutionrequirementsfromtheusercommunity.

由两部份组成

Functionalrequirement功能性需求 Non-functionalrequirement非功能性需求Functionalvs.NonfunctionalRequirementsFunctionalrequirement-somethingtheinformationsystemmustdo

注logicaldesign→whattodo

physicaldesign→howtodoNonfunctionalrequirement-apropertyorqualitythesystemmusthavePerformanceSecurityCosts需求分析的重要性…(1)客户这样解释项目经理这样以为分析师这样设计需求分析的重要性…(2)程序设计师这样写顾问这样描述项目的文件像这样需求分析的重要性…(3)实际装上去的系统跟顾客收这样的钱项目的维护像这样需求分析的重要性…(4)客户其实真的需要是这样RelativeCosttoFixanError错误发现得越晚，其修正的成本越高所以在需求分析时期就把事情做好，非常重要为什么不早讲ProcessofRequirementsDiscovery发现需求的程序1Problemdiscoveryandanalysis

先发现并分析问题2Requirementsdiscovery 发现需求3Documentingandanalyzingrequirements纪录并分析需求4Requirementsmanagement 做好需求管理(增修删/版本控管等)1.问题分析-IshikawaDiagram

(a.k.aFishboneDiagram魚骨圖)Graphicaltoolusedtoidentify,explore,anddepictproblemsandthecausesandeffectsofthoseproblems.Itisoftenreferredtoasacause-and-effectdiagramorafishbonediagram.也称石川图、原因与效果图Problematright(fishhead)Possiblecausesdrawnas"bones"offmainbackboneBrainstormfor3-6maincategoriesofpossiblecauses问题分析-鱼骨图例(1)问题分析-鱼骨图例(2)问题分析-鱼骨图例(3)2.RequirementsDiscoveryGivenanunderstandofproblems,thesystemsanalystcanstarttodefinerequirements. Fact-finding–theformalprocessofusingresearch,meetings,interviews,questionnaires,sampling,andothertechniquestocollectinformationaboutsystemproblems,requirements,andpreferences.Itisalsocalledinformationgatheringordatacollection. 后面会介绍七种需求收集的技巧3.DocumentingandAnalyzingRequirementsDocumentingthedraftrequirementsUsecases,Decisiontables,Requirementstables等AnalyzingrequirementstoresolveproblemsMissingrequirements 是否有遗漏的Conflictingrequirements 是否有相冲突的Infeasiblerequirements 是否有不可行的Overlappingrequirements 是否有重叠的Ambiguousrequirements 是否有模稜两可的FormalizingrequirementsRequirementsdefinitiondocumentCommunicatedtostakeholdersorsteeringbodyRequirementsDefinitionDocumentRequirementsDefinitionDocument–Aformaldocumentthatcommunicatestherequirementsofaproposedsystemtokeystakeholdersandservesasacontractforthesystemsproject.需求定义书SynonymsRequirementsdefinitionreportRequirementsstatementRequirementsspecification通常又称为需求规格书Functionalspecifications或是功能规格书SampleRequirementsDefinitionReportOutline4.RequirementsManagement

Requirementsmanagement-theprocessofmanagingchangetotherequirements. 管理需求的变更(增修删/版本控管等)

Overthelifetimeoftheprojectitisverycommonfornewrequirementstoemergeandexistingrequirementstochange.Studieshaveshownthatoverthelifeofaprojectasmuchas50percentormoreoftherequirementswillchangebeforethesystemisputintoproduction.

研究显示,项目内有超过一半的需求有可能变动SevenFact-FindingTechniques

七种需求收集的技巧Samplingofexistingdocumentation,forms,anddatabases.Researchandsitevisits.Observationoftheworkenvironment.Questionnaires.Interviews.Prototyping.Jointrequirementsplanning(JRP).VI.SystemsDesignCreateanewsystemtosolvetheproblem/opportunityPrototyping–createworkingmodelsoftheproposedsystemThePrototypingProcess–prototypesaredevelopedquicklyfortrialbyuserstoobtainuserfeedbackUserInterfaceDesign–criticalbecausetheinterfaceisthepartofthesystemsclosesttotheuserSystemSpecifications–listingofelementsthatformalizethedesignVI.SystemsDesignThePrototypingProcessTheDeterminantsofProjectSuccessAccordingtothecase,whatisthemostimportantfactorforbusinessprojectsuccess?Whichprojectshavefewestproblems?Whywouldamanagernotknowifhisprojectisstrategic?Whatwasthebiggestchallengegivenbyprojectmanagers?Google’sInterface:BalancingFreedomandConsistencyWhatareGoogle’sdesigndecisionsbasedon?WhatproblemisinherentinGoogle’sculture?Whyisthisaproblemforusers?Whatissuesdoesthiscauseinconsistencyvs.pragmatism?补充:ModelingtheRequirement常用方法流程图Flowchart(orcalledFlowdiagram)实体关系图+资料流程图Entity-Relationshipmodel(ERmodel)Dataflowdiagram(DFD)Unifiedmodellanguage(UML)Use-casediagram使用案例，类似情境之表示Classdiagram类别图，类似个体关系之表达Activitydiagram活动图，类似流程图之表达Sequencediagram循序图，活动上加入时序概念Flowchart:Example参考连结Flowchart:Example参考连结FlowchartExampleFlowchartExampleVII.End-UserDevelopment

ISprofessionalsactasconsultantswhileuserdotheirownapplicationdevelopmentFocusonISActivities–focusshouldbeonfundamentalactivities:input,processing,output,storage,controlDoingEnd-UserDevelopment–maydiscoverneworimprovedwaystodothejobVII.End-UserDevelopment

BluePrism:“Shadow”ITIsBecomingMorePervasiveWhatis“shadow”IT?Whatsituationscanleadtothisbehavior,andwhydousersdoit?WhatdidtheBluePrismsurveyreveal?WhatisIT’ssolutiontoaproblem?Whyisthisnotalwaysthecorrectsolution?Whatshouldbetheirfocus?VII.TechnicalNote:OverviewofObject- OrientedAnalysisandDesignObjects–anythingaprogrammerwantstomanageormanipulateObject-OrientedProgramming(OOP)Inheritance–abilitytoinheritpropertiesofahigher-orderobjectModularity–aseriesofinterlinkedyetstand-alonemodulesPolymorphism–differentbehaviorbasedonconditionsEncapsulation–concealingallthepropertiesinsidetheobjectObject-OrientedAnalysis(OOA)–modelingtheproblemdomainasanobject-orientedsystemObject-OrientedDesign(OOD)–createsolutionsusingobjectsSection2ImplementingStrategicBusinessSystemsI.TheWorldofSystemsImplementation

Implementationisavitalstepthatmustbecompleted;itisimportanttoPLANanimplementation.II.ImplementingNewSystems

Maybedifficultandtime-consumingTheImplementationProcessProjectPortfolioManagement:ShoottheBadProjects,KeeptheGoodOnesWhatistherewardfordoingagoodjob?Whyisthistrue?WhatskillsneedtobelearnedbyITtoclosethecredibilitygapinPPM?Whatroledoesinternalpoliticshave?WhydoesITlookbadwhenanotherdepartmentcreatesabadproject?III.ProjectManagementWhatIsaProject?–asetofactivitieswithabeginningandanend,hasgoalsandtasks,mayhaveconstraints(limitations)TheProcessofProjectManagement–fivephases:InitiationandDefining–statetheproblemandidentifyobjectivesandresources,explorecosts/benefitsPlanning–identifyandsequenceobjectives/activitiesExecuting–putplansintomotionControlling–ensureprojectobjectivesanddeadlinesaremetClosing–installdeliverables,releaseresources,endtheprojectIII.ProjectManagementPhasesofProjectManagementProjectManagementFunctions

补充：项目管理的八大功能Scoping–settingtheboundariesoftheprojectPlanning–identifyingthetasksrequiredtocompletetheprojectEstimating–identifyingresourcesrequiredtocompletetheprojectScheduling–developingaplantocompletetheprojectOrganizing–makingsuremembersunderstandtheirrolesandresponsibilitiesDirecting–coordinatingtheprojectControlling–monitoringprogressClosing–assessingsuccessandfailureProjectManagementActivities

对应的八项主要活动NegotiateScopeIdentifyTasksEstimateTaskDurationsSpecifyIntertaskDependenciesAssignResourcesDirecttheTeamEffortMonitorandControlProgressProjectManagementTools

&TechniquesPERTchart–agraphicalnetworkmodelusedtodepictaproject’stasksandtheirinterdependencies.

Ganttchart–abarchartusedtodepictprojecttasksandtheirtimerequirements.PERTChartGanttChartMicrosoftProjectGanttChartActivity1–NegotiateScopeScope–theboundariesofaproject–theareasofabusinessthataprojectmay(ormaynot)address.Includesanswerstofivebasicquestions:工作范围,要回答这五个问题 Product Quality Time Cost Resources

Statementofwork

(SOW)–anarrativedescribingtheworktobeperformedaspartofaproject.Commonsynonymsincludescopestatement,projectdefinition,projectoverview,anddocumentofunderstanding.StatementofWork

(SOW工作說明書的大綱範例)I. PurposeII. Background A.Problem,opportunity,ordirectivestatement B.Historyleadingtoprojectrequest C.Projectgoalandobjectives D.ProductdescriptionIII. Scope A.Stakeholders B.Data C.Processes D.LocationsIV. ProjectApproach A.Route B.DeliverablesV. ManagerialApproach A.Teambuildingconsiderations B.Managerandexperience C.Trainingrequirements

(continued)NoticetheuseofinformationsystembuildingblocksStatementofWork

(SOW工作說明書的大綱範例)续V. ManagerialApproach(continued) D.Meetingschedules E.Reportingmethodsandfrequency F.Conflictmanagement G.ScopemanagementVI. Constraints A.Startdate B.Deadlines C.Budget D.TechnologyVII. BallparkEstimates A.Schedule B.BudgetVIII. ConditionsofSatisfaction A.Successcriteria B.Assumptions C.RisksIX. AppendicesActivity2–IdentifyTasksWorkbreakdownstructure(WBS)工作展开结构–agraphicaldiagramusedtodepictthehierarchicaldecompositionoftheprojectintophases,activities,andtasks.Milestone里程碑

–aneventsignifyingthecompletionofamajorprojecttaskordeliverable.(实务上跟收款有关)Activity3–EstimateTaskDurationsElapsedtimetakesintoconsideration:Efficiency-noworkerperformsat100%efficiency考量实际产出效率Coffeebreaks,lunch,e-mail,etc.Estimatesof75%efficiencyarecommonInterruptions可能被中断的情况Phonecalls,visitors,etc.10-50%Activity3–EstimateTaskDurations(continued)1.

Estimatetheminimumamountoftimeitwouldtaketoperformthetask–theoptimisticduration(OD).2.

Estimatethemaximumamountoftimeitwouldtaketoperformthetask–thepessimisticduration(PD).3.

Estimatetheexpectedduration(ED)thatwillbeneededtoperformthetask.4.

Calculateaweightedaverageofthemostlikelyduration(D)asfollows:D=(1xOD)+(4xED)+(1xPD)

6

3.33days=(1x2days)+(4x3days)+(1x6days)

6

PDEDODActivity4–SpecifyIntertaskDependencies两个工作间的四种关系Finish-to-start(FS)—Thefinishofonetasktriggersthestartofanothertask.例:装完管线才能铺地板Start-to-start(SS)—Thestartofonetasktriggersthestartofanothertask.例:开始拆旧装璜就要同时开始清运垃圾Finish-to-finish(FF)—Twotasksmustfinishatthesametime.例:电话线与网络线都拉好才能组办公家具Start-to-finish(SF)—Thestartofonetasksignifiesthefinishofanothertask.例:开始搬入家具表示油漆工程完成了EnteringIntertaskDependencies输入工作相依性SchedulingStrategies

两种排程的策略Forwardscheduling–aprojectschedulingapproachthatestablishesaprojectstartdateandthenschedulestasksforwardfromthestartdate.从开始日开始,由前往后排

Reversescheduling–aprojectschedulingstrategythatestablishesaprojectdeadlineandthenschedulestasksbackwardfromthefinishdate.从结束日开始,由后往前排Activity5–AssignResources

分派五大资源People–includesallsystemowners,users,analysts,designers,builders,externalagents,andclericalhelpinvolvedintheprojectinanyway.Services–includesservicessuchasaqualityreviewthatmaybechargedonaperusebasis.Facilitiesandequipment–includesallroomsandtechnologythatwillbeneededtocompletetheproject.Suppliesandmaterials–everythingfrompencils,paper,notebookstotonercartridges,andsoon.Money–includesatranslationofalloftheaboveintobudgeteddollars!DefiningProjectResourcesAssigningProjectResourcesAssigningPeopletoTasks

将人与工作任务连起来Recruittalented,highlymotivatedpeople

任用有才能,有成就动机的人Selecttheappropriatepersonforeachtask针对每个工作,选择最合适的人Promoteteamharmony保持团队和谐Planforthefuture预估到未来的需求Keeptheteamsizesmall不要一次加太多人ResourceLeveling资源抚平Resourceleveling–astrategyforcorrectingresourceover-allocations.例:当同一个人同时被分派到两项工作时

Twotechniquesforresourceleveling: taskdelaying工作递延 tasksplitting工作分割TaskSplittingandTaskDelaying何时该选用工作分割或工作递延?Criticalpath要径

–thesequenceofdependenttasksthatdeterminestheearliestpossiblecompletiondateoftheproject.Tasksonthecriticalpathcannotbedelayedwithoutdelayingtheentireprojectcompletiontime.Criticaltaskscanonlybesplit.此时只能用分割的方法Slacktime宽松时间

–theamountoftimethatataskcanbedelayedwithoutcausingadelayinthecompletiondateoftheentireproject.Tasksthathaveslacktimecanbedelayedtoachieveresourceleveling此时可以用递延的方法Activity6–DirecttheTeamEffortSupervisionresources 随时监督资源的使用状况TheDeadline:ANovelaboutProjectManagementThePeopleSideofSystemsTheOneMinuteManager

一分钟经理人:立标,赞赏,申诫TheOneMinuteManagerMeetstheMonkeyStagesofTeamMaturity

(seefiguretotheright) 团队成熟度的不同阶段形成冲进规范执行10HintsforProjectLeadership

项目领导的十个要诀BeConsistent.要一致ProvideSupport.要提供支援Don’tMakePromisesYouCan’tKeep.不要承诺做不到的事PraiseinPublic;CriticizeinPrivate.公开表扬,私下申诫BeAwareofMoraleDangerPoints.注意会让士气受损的事SetRealisticDeadlines.设定符合实际的期限SetPerceivableTargets.设定可看到的目标ExplainandShow,RatherThanDo.多解释与示范,而不是直接做Don’tRelyonJustStatusReports.不可只依赖进度报告EncourageaGoodTeamSpirit.鼓吹好的团队精神Activity7–Monitorand

ControlProgressProgressreporting进度报告Changemanagement变动管理Expectationsmanagement预期管理Scheduleadjustments—criticalpathanalysis(CPA)更改时程与要径分析ChangeManagement

变动管理Changemanagement–aformalstrategyinwhichaprocessisestablishedtofacilitatechangesthatoccurduringaproject.Changescanbetheresultofvariouseventsandfactorsincluding:为什么会造成变动的几大原因：Anomissionindefininginitialscope工作定义时有疏漏Amisunderstandingoftheinitialscope误解工作范围Anexternaleventsuchasgovernmentregulationsthatcreatenewrequirements外部事件造成新需求(如政府法令要求)Organizationalchanges组织变动Availabilityofbettertechnology有更好的技术可用Shiftsinplannedtechnologythatforcechangestothebusinessorganization,culture,and/orprocesses技术造成的改变Management’sdesiretohavethesystemdomore管理阶层Reducedfundingforprojectorimpositionofanearlierdeadline.经费减少或时程提前Activity8–AssessProjectResultsandExperiencesDidthefinalproductmeetorexceeduserexpectations?Whyorwhynot?Didtheprojectcomeinonschedule?Whyorwhynot?Didtheprojectcomeinunderbudget?Whyorwhynot?SAS:ServicesKeyinMainframeMigrationProjectWhatistheproblemwiththecurrent“homegrown”SASsystem?Whatsolutionsdoesthenewsystemprovide?Whataretheexpecteddollarsavingsfro,thisimplementation?IV.EvaluatingHardware,Software,and Services

PerformancemustbedemonstratedandevaluatedHardwareEvaluationFactors–physicaland