白皮书 2030 年电池创新路线图part1

Version2.0-June2022

AnupdateoftheoriginalversionfromJune2020totakeintoaccountthelatestdevelopments

intheEU’spolicyobjectivesandthelatesttechnologicalrealitiesandpotentialofthebest

availablebatterytechnologies.Thenewversionincludes

AnupdateonthefourmainstreambatterytechnologiesIdentificationoffuturepromisingbatterytechnologiesFine-tuned&newend-userapplications

Newaspectsonsustainability,circularity,recyclingandrawmaterials

PbLiNiNa

EUROBATistheleadingassociationforEuropeanautomotiveandindustrialbatterymanufacturers,coveringallbatterytechnologies,andhasmorethan50members.Themembersandstaffworkwithallpolicymakers,industrystakeholders,NGOsandmediatohighlighttheimportantrolebatteriesplayfordecarbonisedmobilityandenergysystemsaswellasallothernumerousapplications.www.eurobat.org

MORETHAN

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MORETHAN

5

manufacturers

andAssociate

battery

manufacting

plants

researchcenters

membersfrom

acrossthe

valuechain

AUTOMOTIVE

BatteriescontributetothedecarbonisationoftheEuropeantransportsector-reducingCo2emissionsviastartstopbatteriesandinnovativesolutionsinXEVs

STATIONARYENERGY

Batteriesareindispensableforstoringrenewablestationaryenergycomingfromsolarandwindfarmsinongridandoffgridsolutions.Theyalsocontributetoamorestableandreliablegrid.

MTIVEPOWER

MATERIALHANDLING

Batteriesareaperfectfitforpoweringindustrialvehiclessuchasforkliftsandcranes,whilealsoreducingnoiseandemissions.

MTIVEPOWER

OFF-ROADTRANSPORTATION

Batteriesarewidelyusedinrail,marineandairtransportation.Theconceptsofsmartchargingofroadvehiclestosupporttheenergysystemisalsorelevantforoff-roadbecausetheirwidedeploymentandlargeenergycapacities

EUROBATrepresentsthemanufacturersofallfourexistingbatterytechnologies:Lead-,Lithium-,Nickel-andSodium-based.Eachchemistryhasitsownadvantagesandisbestsuitedforspecificapplications.

PbLiNiNa

LEADBASED

LITHIUMBASED

NICKELBASED

SODIUMBASED

ADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

Affordable,provensafe

Highenergydensity,

Longlife,

Relativelyhighenergy

andsustainable

lowweight

reliability

density,lowweight

Contents

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EXECUTIVESUMMARY

INTRODUCTION–SCOPEANDPURPOSEOFTHEROADMAP

OVERALLCONTEXT–DRIVERSFORBATTERYINNOVATION

3.1.Batterymarketsandpredictions

3.2.DriversforbatteryInnovation

R&DAREASANDPOTENTIALSPERBATTERYTECHNOLOGY

4.1.State-of-the-artofthefourmainstreamtechnologiesinthemarket

4.2.State-of-the-artofthemostpromisingfuturetechnologies

BATTERYR&DINEND-USERAPPLICATIONS

5.1.Area1AutomotiveMobility

5.2.Area2Motivepowermaterialhandling&logistics

5.3.Area3Motivepower–Off-roadtransportation

5.4.Area4Stationaryenergystorage

CROSS-CUTTING–SUSTAINABILITY&SAFETYASPECTSOFBATTERIES

6.1.TheEUBatteriesRegulationproposal

6.2.TheBatteryPassport

6.3.BatteryStandardisation

CONCLUDINGREMARKSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

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7.1Inconclusion

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7.2Recommendations

8.

TECHNICALANNEX

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

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ExecutiveSummary

TheBatteryInnovationRoadmap2.0isanupdateoftheoriginalpublication(fromJune2020)toaccountforthelatesttechnologicaldevelopmentsandchangesintheEU’spolicyobjectives,primarilytheproposalforaBatteriesRegulation(releasedinDecember2020).ItreflectsthetechnologicalrealitiesandpotentialofthebestavailablebatterytechnologiesandhowtheycancontributetotheEU’spolicyobjectives.

TheupdatedRoadmapincludes:

•Anupdateoftheinnovationpotentialofmainstreambatterytechnologies

•Newelectro-chemistries,suchaspostLi-ionandpost-lithiumtechnologies

•Newandfine-tunedend-userapplications,suchasmild-andfullHEVs,off-roadindustrialvehicles,electricaviationandoff-gridenergystorageapplications

•Newaspectswithregardtocircularityandcriticalrawmaterials

ThekeypointsaddressedintheRoadmapare:

TheEuropeanGreenDealandBatteriesRegulationrepresentthekeylegislativedriversforbatteryinnovationtomeettheEU’sobjectivesinthecomingyears.

•TheGreenDeal,presentedinDecember2019,isoneofthemaindriverstofurtherelectrifyend-userapplicationsanddecarbonisetransportation,theenergysystem,telecoms,off-roadindustrialvehiclesandmanyotherapplications.Innovationsinbatterytechnologiesarerecognisedasoneofthekeyenablerstomakethisrhappen.r

•TheBatteriesRegulationwillbethemaindrivertofurtherreducetheenvironmentalandsocietallifecycleimpactofbatteries.NotallmainstreamtechnologiesareatthesamelevelofmaturityandfurtherbatteryR&Disrequired.

Eachmainstreambatterytechnology–lead-,lithium-,nickel-andsodium-based–hasasubstantialdevelopmentalpotential,drivenbytherequirementsofdifferentapplications.Nosinglebatterychemistryortechnologycanmeetallthechallengesofend-userdemandinamultitudeofapplications,combininghighpowerandenergydensity,longlife,lowcost,excellentsafetyandminimalenvironmentalimpact.Improvementsinservicelife,performanceandsafetywillbeenabledbyusinginnovativematerialsandcellcomponentsintheelectrochemicalsystem,aswellasapplyingadvancedbatterymanagementsystems.Theoutstandingfeatureinthisprocessisthattheseimprovementsarealwaystailoredtotheneedsofaspecificapplication.

TheEuropeanbatterymanufacturingindustry(allchemistries)iscommittedtomeetingtheEU’sobjectives,inaccordancewiththeGreenDealandBatteriesRegulation.Theindustryiscommittedtoincreasingitsinvestmentsininnovationandtoscalingupbatteryproductioninlinewithfuturedemandforbatteriesandrequirementsrelatedtoperformance,safetyandthecirculareconomy.

Europeneedsaregulatorylandscapethattreatsallbatterytechnologiesequally:

•Tomaximiseexistingcapabilities

•Toallowallmainstreamtechnologiestoevolveandinnovateinlinewithfuturerequirements,tomeetthecarbon-neutralobjectivesoftheGreenDealandtomakeEuropelessdependentonfossilfuelimports

•TomakeEuropelessdependentonimportsofmaterialsand,therefore,lessvulnerabletoshortages(byutilisingdifferenttechnologiesanddevelopingthecirculareconomy)

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

2

Introduction

ScopeandpurposeoftheRoadmap

Whythisupdate?

TheEUROBATBatteryInnovationRoadmap2030,releasedinJune2020,complementedtheEUROBATElectionManifesto2019-2024,aimingtoprovidepolicy-makerswithfactualinformationonthecontributionsandinnovationpotentialofthecurrentmainstreambatterytechnologiespresentinthemarket.

TheBatteryInnovationRoadmap2.0considersthelatesttechnologicaldevelopmentsandchangesintheEU’spolicyobjectives,primarilytheproposalforaBatteriesRegulation,inordertoreflectthetechnologicalrealitiesandpotentialofthebestavailabletechnologiescurrentlyonthemarketandhowtheycancontributetotheEU’sobjectives.Inthissense,thisRoadmapshouldbeseenasalivingdocument,tobereviewedeverytwoyearstoaccountfortheseevolutionsintechnologyandpolicygoals.

AstheRoadmap2.0addressesbothpolicy-makersandtheEuropeanR&Dcommunity,itconsistsofamaindocumentandaTechnicalAnnex

•Themaindocumentisamid-termreviewtoinformpolicy-makersaboutthecurrentstate-of-playandinnovationpotentialofthemainstreambatterytechnologiescurrentlyonthemarketandhowtheyhelpachievetheclimateneutralitytargetsoftheGreenDeal.ItalsohasanewfocusonhowbatteriescancontributetothesustainabilityobjectiveslaidoutintheBatteriesRegulationandhowindustrycansupportEurope’sActionPlanonCriticalRawMaterialsbyimprovingtherecoveryandrecyclingofbatterymaterials,inlinewithupcominglegislativerequirementsrelatingtotheenvironment

•TheTechnicalAnnexaddressestheEuropeanR&Dcommunity,providingmorein-depthbackgroundinformationontheinnovationpotentialofmainstreamandfuturebatterytechnologies,towards2030andbeyond.

Whatisnewcomparedtotheoriginalversion?

•Anupdateonthestate-of-the-artandinnovationpotentialofthemainstreambatterytechnologies(lead-,lithium-andnickel-based)coveredintheoriginalRoadmap,aswellastheadditionofsodium-basedbatteries

•Achapterdescribingthemostpromisingfuturetechnologiesandhowtheywillimpactthemarketby2030

•Anupdateontheend-userapplicationscoveredintheoriginalRoadmap,aswellasfouradditionalapplicationsthatcansignificantlycontributetotheEU’sGreenDealtargets:

oAutomotive:Mild-andfull-hybridelectricvehicles

oMotivepower:Off-roadindustrialvehiclesandaviation

oOff-gridenergystorageinruralareasindevelopingcountriesoronsmallislands

•Anextendedchapteronsustainabilityandthecirculareconomy,addressingthetopicsintheBatteriesRegulation,todemonstratehowtheEuropeanbatteryindustrycancontributetoEurope’sstrategicautonomy

Batteriesaredesignedforuseinspecificapplications.Assuch,thisRoadmapemphasisestheimportanceofconsideringeachapplicationindependentlywhenchannellingR&Dintoadvancingbatterytechnologies.ThebatteryfeaturesandtargetsselectedintheEU’sStrategicEnergyTechnologyPlan(SETPlan)stronglyfocusonplug-inHEV/EVpropulsionbatteriesandsecondlifeelectricvehicle(EV)batteryuse,whichresultedinR&Dtargetingthemostsuitabletechnologiesfortheseapplicationprofiles.However,therearemanyotheremergingbatterymarkets,eachofwhichcancontributetotransformingtheEU’seconomyinsupportofthe2050climateneutralitygoals.

Consequently,thisRoadmapfocusesonavarietyofcriticalapplications,identifyingthekeybatteryperformancetoimproveinordertomeetfuturerequirementsfortheapplicationstheywillserve.Itconcludeswithasetofresearchandinnovationobjectivesperapplication,demonstratingthenecessityandcomplementarityofdifferentbatterytechnologies,whichallhavearoletoplayandoffersignificantpotentialfordevelopment.

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

Theend-userapplicationsareexaminedinthiswhitepapertoprovidethetechnicalbackgroundforwhydifferentbatterytechnologiesareneeded.Itdemonstrateshowthedifferentbatterytechnologiesandchemistrieseachhavetheirspecificroleanddevelopmentalpotentialinordertoanticipatetheshiftingdemandfromthecontinuousinnovationinautomotive,motiveandstationarystorageapplications.

Thiswhitepaperaimstoprovideadirectiononcurrenttechnicalbatteryrequirementsandwhatwebelieveisfeasibletotargetby2030.Withthismarket-orientedapproach,batteryexpertshaveidentifiedthekeyperformanceindicatorspertechnologytoprioritiseinR&Dinordertomeettheabove-mentionedshiftingdemandtowardslowemissionmobilityandpowergeneration.

Themainstreambatterytechnologiesconsideredarelead-,lithium-,nickel-andsodium-basedtechnologies.

BATTERYTECHNOLOGIESANDAPPLICATIONS

Ni

Pb

Li

Na

NICKELBASED

ADVANTAGES

Longlife,reliability

LITHIUMBASED

ADVANTAGES

Highenergydensity,lowweight

LEADBASED

ADVANTAGES

Affordable,provensafeandsustainable

SODIUMBASED

ADVANTAGES

Relativelyhighenergy

density,

lowweight

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

3

Overallcontext–DriversforBatteryInnovation

3.1Batterymarketsandpredictions

Therearemanycrediblesourcespredictingdifferentbatterymarkettrendsindifferentscenarios.ForEUROBAT,arealisticscenariofortheevolutionofthetotalworldwidebatterymarketisafive-foldmarketgrowth,from645GWhin2020to3,495GWhin2030.Thechartbelowrepresentstheworldwidebatterymarketpertechnology.Thisshowsthatleadandlithiumbatterieswillremainthedominanttechnologiesinthemarketthroughto2030,withvolumesofleadandlithiumbatteriesontheworldmarketreaching495GWhand3,000GWh,respectively.

Chart:WorldwideB2Bbatterymarket–technologysegments-EUROBATbestestimates

Furthersegmentationoftheleadandlithiumbatterymarketisprovidedinthechartbelow.

Chart:LeadandLithiumbasedWorldwideB2Bbatterymarkets–EUROBATbestestimates

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

Thesechartsgiveafirstindicationthatthemainstreambatterytechnologieswillremaincomplementarythroughto2030:

•Leadbatteries(495GWh)willservethe12VSLIand12Vauxiliaryautomotiveapplications,followedbyspecificapplicationsinmotivepowerandstationaryenergystorage,inparticularUPSandtelecommarkets.

•Lithiumbatteries(3,000GWh)willlargelyservethee-mobilityautomotivepowersegments(xEVbatteries),representing85-90%ofthetotalvolume,butalsoenergystoragemarkets,whichwillreach150-225GWhby2030,ofwhich41GWhwillbebehind-the-meter(BTM),138GWhfront-of-the-meter(FTM)and31GWhforresidentialstorage(seechartbelow).

Chart:Worldwidelithiumbatterymarketmainlydrivenbye-mobility–EUROBATbestestimates

Itshouldbenotedthatcurrentpredictionsonlarge-scaleESSdoNOTtakeintoaccounttheEuropeanCommission’srecentlyannouncedRePowerEUPlaninresponsetoglobalenergymarketdisruptions.REPowerEUwasinitiallycreatedtoendtheEU’sdependencyonfossilfuelimportsandwillreinforcetheCommission’sFitfor55plantocutemissionsbyatleast55%by2030.

ThesynergyofbothplanswillconsiderablyacceleratethebuildingofEurope’scleanenergyinfrastructure.InthiscontexttheCommissionisproposingtoincreasetheEU’s2030targetforrenewablesfromthecurrent40%to45%,whichwouldbringthetotalrenewableenergygenerationcapacitiesto1,236GWby2030(comparedto1,067GWby2030underFitfor55).Thesenewobjectiveswillimpactourmarketprojectionsforthestationarystoragebatterymarketsand,inparticular,forlarge-scaleESS.

3.2DriversforbatteryInnovation

Thelargevarietyofproductsthatco-existonthemarkettodayistheresultofincrementalimprovements

introducedovermanydecadestofitthespecificneedsoftheapplicationsandtheirever-increasingdemands.

Batteryinnovationhashistoricallybeenmarketdriven,primarilybytheend-userapplications.Thisexplainstheverywiderangeofspecificbatteryproducts,sizes,technologiesandchemistriestoday.TheEuropeanindustryhasbeenstrongfordecadesinservingbothmassandnichemarketsbyleadingnationalandinternationalstandardisationandbycontributinginnovativeproductstothedevelopmentofamultitudeofapplications.

TheEuropeanGreenDealandtheBatteriesRegulationwillbethemainlegislativedriversforfurtherR&Donbatteries:

ThepolicyobjectivesoftheEuropeanGreenDeal,theFit-for-55PlanandtheREpowerEUplan

TheGreenDealandtheFit-for-55Planpromoteincreasedelectrification,therebypushinginnovationacrossautomotive,motiveandstationaryenergymarkets.Themainstreambatterytechnologiesarestrongcontributorstothedecarbonisationofallmodesoftransportationandtosupporttheenergytransition.Allthemainstreambatterytechnologiesstillhavepotentialforimprovementandwillcontinuetoplayakeyrolethroughto2030andbeyond.

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

EUROBATismemberoftheBEPABatt4EUpartnershipprivatesideassociationandtheETIPBatteriesEurope,whicharethemaincontributorstoshapingtheEU’sR&DagendaonbatteriesinordertohelpEuropetomeettheobjectivesoftheGreenDeal.

ThesustainabilityobjectivesintheBatteriesRegulationandotherEUlegislation

TheBatteriesRegulation,whichisreachingitsfinalstageofthelegislativeprocess,aimsnotonlytoimprovebatterydevelopmentbutalsotheproductionprocessesinEurope.Inaddition,aspartoftheEuropeanGreenDeal,theproposalforaRegulationonEco-designforSustainableProductswillsetnewsustainabilityrulesforalmostallphysicalgoodsontheEUmarket,includingbatteries,throughouttheirwholelifecyclefromthedesignphasetoenduse,repurposingandend-of-life.

Withthisinmind,thebatteryindustrywilltakefurtherstepstowardsacirculareconomy,whichwillalsostrengthenEurope’saccesstorawandsecondarymaterialsduetorecyclingexistingbatteries.

Toensurethelong-termgrowthandsustainabilityofthebatteryvaluechaininEurope,itisessentialtomaintainthecompetitivenessandleadershipoftheEuropeanbatteryindustry.

Inthiscontext,afit-for-purposeandwell-balancedlegislativeframeworkisneededtocreatealevelplayingfieldinwhichallbatterytechnologiesaretreatedequallyinordertofurtherdevelopastrong,sustainableanddiverseEuropeanbatterysupplychainforthebenefitofallEuropeancitizens.

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

4

R&Dareasandpotentialsper

batterytechnology

Thedemandforbatterieshascontinuouslygrown,andtheperformanceofbatteriesimproved,duetoincreasedelectrificationacrossamultitudeofapplications.Withtheaimtoachieveclimateneutrality,furtherelectrificationofthemostcarbon-intensivesectors–transportandenergy–ispushingtheboundariesofbatteriesevenfurther.Inaddition,toremaincompetitiveandcatchupinemergingareas,EuropehasputenvironmentalsustainabilityattheheartofEuropeanbatteryproduction.Thisalsoaddressestheambitionsofthegreenenergytransition,includingsecuringaccesstorawmaterialsthroughrecyclingandthecirculareconomy.

Tosupportamulti-targetstrategy,theEuropeanBatteryAlliance(EBA)waslaunchedin2017bytheEuropeanCommission,EUMemberStates,industryandthescientificcommunity.Furthermore,in2018,theCommissionadoptedaStrategicActionPlanforBatteries,settingoutaframeworkofregulatoryandnon-regulatorymeasurestosupportR&D&Iandindustrialisationformaximumimpact.

Batteriesthataresustainableovertheirentirelifecyclewillbekeytoachievingclimateneutrality,aswellastoensuringthesustainablecompetitivenessoftheindustryandtomakingEuropelessdependentonenergyimports.Inaddition,thenewBatteriesRegulationframeworkshouldalsohelptoreducetheEU’sdependenceonimportedmaterialstobuildbatteriesthatarecrucialforachievingtheclimategoals,asalotofthatmaterialcouldcomefromrecyclingexistingbatteries.

Besidesthemainstreamtechnologies(lead-,lithium-,nickel-andsodium-based),EUROBATindustryexpertsmadeaselectionofthemostpromisingfutureupcomingbatterytechnologies,basedontheircurrentinnovationpotentialandtechnologyreadinesslevel,thatcanbebroughttomarketandeffectivelycontributetotheEU’ssustainabilityandcarbonneutralityobjectives.

Thedevelopmentalpotentialofthetechnologiesconsideredinthiswhitepaperdependsontheirtechnologicalreadinesslevel.However,foreachtechnologyconsidered,theoptimisationofanindividualparameterhasadirectimpactontheotherparameters.Therefore,animprovementinoneparametercanbeaccompaniedbythedeclineofanother.Thismakesitnecessarytodevelopelectrochemicalstoragetechnologiestailoredtotherequirementsofaspecificapplication.

4.1State-of-the-artofthefourmainstream

technologiesinthemarket

4.1.1.Lead-basedbatteries

Pb

Lead-basedbatterieshavebeenonthemarketsinceacenturybecausetheyareaffordable,safeandsustainable.Occupationalexposuretoleadisnowundercontrolbecausethebatteryindustryhasproactivelytakenmeasurestolimittheexposureofitsemployeestobloodleadcontaminationduringthemanufacturingprocess.Europeshouldallowthemarkettodriveinnovationandrecentprogressonleadbatteryresearchshouldnotbediscounted.Thefurtherdevelopmentofleadbatteriesinavarietyofenhancedtechnologieswillserveapplicationsthatcancontributetotheachievementofthezero-carbontargetsintheEuropeanGreenDeal.

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

Thecollectionandrecyclingofleadbatteriesiswell-establishedandensuresaminimumimpact.TheEUhasamatureprocessofcollectionandrecyclingthatisbothefficientandcost-effectiveandoperateswithinanestablishedinfrastructurethatensuresacirculareconomy.Batteriesarecollectedbyrecognisedcompaniesandrecycledwithinspecialisedrecyclingfacilities(secondaryleadsmelters)inaclosed-loopsystemthatoperatesunderstrictenvironmentalregulations.Fromanend-of-lifeperspective,thisprocessreducestheneedtoproduceadditionalvirginmaterials,suchasprimaryleadandplastics,whichhavethebiggestenvironmentalimpactinthelifecycleoftheproduct.Today,anastonishing99%ofend-of-lifeleadbatteriesarecollectedandrecycled.Thisisbecauseonlyleadbatteryrecyclinggeneratesanetincomeacrosstheentirevaluechain.

Recyclingtargetsforleadbatterieswillbemaintainedataveryhighlevelin2030,with90%efficiencyandrecyclingofactivematerialsat99%,achievingacirculareconomyandbenefitingthewholevaluechain.

Moreinformationonthestate-of-the-artstatusandtheimprovementpotentialoflead-basedbatteriesisavailableintheTechnicalAnnex.

4.1.2.Lithium-basedbatteries

Li

Li-iontechnologieshaveahighenergydensityandlowweight.ThetechnologiesconsideredinthisRoadmapconsistofacombinationofspecificanodeandcathodematerials.Economicandenvironmentalrequirementsare:lowcontentofcriticalmaterials(e.g.cobalt),easyprocessingavailability,environmentallysafeandethical,operationallysafeandlowcarbonfootprintduringproduction.

Recyclingisundertakenthroughpyrometallurgyorhydrometallurgy,morerecently,bydirectrecycling,andsomenewlyinstalledcapacitiesarecurrentlyunderdevelopment.End-of-lifecellsandmodules,aswellasproductionscraps,arenotcrushedbuttreateddirectly.Valuablemetalsarerecoveredforconversionintoactivecathodematerialsfortheproductionofnewbatteries.Lithiumrepresentsasmallfractionofwhatisrecoveredandisnotcurrentlyreusedinthebatteryvaluechain.

Productionprocesses,recyclingprocessesandtransportationhavebeenidentifiedaschallengestorecycling.

Recyclingtargetsforlithiumbatterieswillbemaintainedatthecurrentlevelof50%,butactivematerialrecyclingisexpectedtoincreasefrom65%to85%by2030.Therecoveryofnickel,cobaltandlithiumwillalsobefullycommerciallyviableinfuture.

Moreinformationonthestate-of-the-artstatusandtheimprovementpotentialoflithium-basedbatteriesisavailableintheTechnicalAnnex.

4.1.3.Nickel-basedbatteries

Ni

Nickel-basedbatterieshavealonglifeandareveryreliable.Usinginnovativematerials,thistechnologycanbefurtherdevelopedforexistingapplicationsandasareplacementsolutionwithitskeyperformancepropertiesinextremeconditionshavingthepotentialforfurtherimprovement.

Partnershipsbetweenproducers,logisticscompaniesspecialisedinthetransportationofhazardouswasteandfullypermittedEU-basedrecyclersensurethatindustrialend-userscandisposeoftheirspentindustrialNiCdbatteriesinaneasymanner.Thisenablesproperrecyclingofusedbatteries,

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BATTERYINNOVATIONROADMAP2030

thereuseoftheircomponentstomanufacturenewbatteriesorotherindustrialgoodsandtheprotectionoftheenvironmentinaclosedloop.

Recyclingefficiencyshouldincreasefromthecurrent79%(activematerialsat50%)to80-85%(activematerialsat55-60%)by2030toreachabreak-evenbusinessmodel.

Moreinformationonthestate-of-the-artstatusandtheimprovementpotentialofnickel-basedbatteriesisavailableintheTechnicalAnnex.

4.1.4.Sodium-basedbatteries

Na

Thehigh-temperaturesodium-basedbatterieshavearelativelyhighenergydensityandlowweight.Technologiesavailableonthemarketaresodiumnickelchloride(NaNiCl)andsodium-sulfur(NaS).TheproductionoftheNaNiClbatteryisrelativelyenergy-intensiveandthereforehasahigherenvironmentalimpact,dependingontheheatsource.Otherfactorsarethehighdemandfornickelandthecomplexmodularconstruction.Thenickelcontentinthebatterycanberecoveredandusedinthesteelindustry.Theceramicsinthecells,aswellasthesaltcollectedintheresultingslag,canbeusedinroadconstruction.NaSalsocontainslargeproportionsofsteelandaluminum,whichcanberecycledaccor