英文写作教程第3章如何写段落

第三章如何写段落

英语写作，搞好遣词、造句是前提(教材第二章已做详述)。除这两大点之外，更重要的就是要写好段落。因为，哪怕词、句写得再好，也构不成篇章(text),更称不上是“作文”(“composition”或“towriteanessay”)。而段落写作不仅牵涉到如何遣词、组句，还涉及到如何展开段落、如何篇章布局等作文的基本问题。因此，把段落作为英语写作的基本单位，就抓住了英语写作的要害。首先，我们看看一个正常的段落应该由哪些部分构成：3.1段落的构成一般由3部分构成：

1)主题句(TopicSentence)2)扩展句(Development/supportingSentences)3)结尾句(ConcludingSentences)

结构图示如下：主题句

扩展句1扩展句2扩展句3结尾句

4,5,6….每个段落只有一个主题(centralidea)，它用一个句子加以表达，所以称为主题句(Topicsentence)。主题提出后需要很多结构严谨的句子来支持和说明，称为扩展句，它必须紧扣主题句中的关键词展开，句与句之间必须逻辑清楚，上下转承结合得当。从某种程度上来说，写好了扩展句便基本上完成一个自然段落。段落最后要针对主题得出一个结论，这就是结尾句。完成了这些，一个正常的段落便得以成形。例如：

【主题句】

LearningEnglishatcollegeisdifferentfromlearningEnglishatthemiddleschool.(扩展1)

Inthemiddleschool,thestudentsaremoredependentandpassive,alwaysspoon-fedbyteachers.

(扩展2)

Butcollegestudentsmustsolvemostoftheproblemsbythemselves.(扩展3Theywillhavetoconsultthedictionariesandreferencebooksbythemselvesandpreparetheirlessons.【结尾句*】Whatthey’reencouragedtotakeinthecollegeEnglishstudyistheself-accessinglearningapproach.【*注：通过这一“结尾句”，我们甚至可以想象到下一段要讲的内容，其段落主题多半会围绕“self-accessinglearning

”(自主学习)展开。所以，“结尾句”有时在段落展开(详见本ppt.3.2)中，还起到承上启下(transition)的作用，就是说，前一段的结尾有时还是后一段主题的开始。】3.1.1如何写主题句(Topicsentence):

主题句为一个完整的句子，用以概括、叙述和说明该段的主题。【例见教材p.p055-057:3.1--3.3】主题句限定段落主题的扩展范围和方向，须中肯扼要、结构完整、意义清楚、具体有所指，要内含段落扩展的关键词、利于作者主观发挥的内容，不可用太客观太死板的内容充当主题句，不然作者无法发挥自己的主观思想和意图。例如：【主题句】Rockismyfavoritekindofmusic.【中心思想】RockismyfavoritekindmusicbecauseIlikethesoundofitandthemessageinthesongs.【深化主题，具体】【论述细节】RockismyfavoritekindmusicbecauseIlikethesoundofitandthemessageinthesongs.Thelyricstellaboutreal-lifesituations.Theideasinthesongsmakemethink.IthasagoodbeatthatIcandanceto.【段落基本成形】

要写好主题句，首先要选准句子“关键词”，以明确段落主题，这是写好主题句的关键。“关键词”反映出主题句的中心思想,其作用有二，一是“导向”(control)，它决定着段落的发展脉络(不散乱无章、离题偏题)，二是“制约”(limit)，它决定段落展开的有效范围(不漫无边际、无法收场)。因此，选准关键词是清楚表达段落主题、写好段落主题句的重要前提之一。关键词如何确定？段落主题句对主题的限定是通过关键词来体现的，因此，主题句中的关键词要尽可能的具体、明确，能控制和限定段落发展的方向，做到明确、切实、可行。例如：

例1.(1)Shetriestoimproveherlooks.【太宽泛，主题不明：后面接着写什么？】(2)Shetriesmanywaystoimproveherlooks.【明确、具体。从逻辑上看，只要接着说出几种方式即可，利于段落展开。

】(3)Therearesomereasonswhyshetriestoimproveherlooks【明确、具体，开辟另一思路，只要顺着阐明各条原因即可。】例2.(1)Howtowriteacomposition.

【主题不明，不好展开】(2)Howtowriteacompositionisnotsoeasytotalkabout.【主题明确具体，后面可进一步展开“notsoeasy

”的原因】例3.(1)WecanimproveourEnglish.×(2)WecanimproveourEnglishinseveralways.√(3)

There

areseveralwaystoimproveourEnglish.√

(4)WecanimproveourEnglishbyself-accessstudy.√

为什么？扩展方向明确！前面讲过，关键词主要其两个作用，一是“导向”，二是“制约”。没有“导向”，段落内容就会离题偏题；没有“制约”，内容就可能超出一个段落所能容纳的范围。例如：(教材p061例)Therearetwoways

inwhich

onecanownabook.Thefirstisthepropertyrightyouestablishbypayingforit,justasyouhavemadeitapartofyourself,andthebestwaytomakeyourselfapartofitisbywritinginit.

本段主题句若无“inwhich

”(定语从句)这一关键部分，那么“twoways”便无从说起，整个段落就无法展开，起不到“制约”和“导向”的作用。有了“inwhich”的制约，后面的内容便好展开了(Thefirstis…,andthebestway…is…)。判断：Goldandsilverarethemostvaluablethingsintheworld.

【方向太窄，写不出什么正面内容】(2)Itissaidthatgoldandsilverarethemostvaluablethingsintheworld,(butImustsaythat…)

【留有余地，好展开】(1)【范围太宽，后面不好深入展开】(2)【主题明确，具体化，好展开】(1)【范围太宽，后面不好深入展开】(2)【主题明确，具体化，好展开】3.1.2主题句的位置：大多情况下，英语的主题句都位于段落开头，这与英语民族的思维方式有关，表现为一种直线式思维，段落起笔开宗明义，直指命题，不像汉语那样，思维呈螺旋状，讲究那么多的起、承、转、合和铺叙【弄清这一差异，对学好英语写作十分重要】。当然，主题句也有置于段尾或段中的情况，但大多情况下，特别是考试时，主题句最好放在段首，这样较易掌握和构思。位于段首：在英文中，大部分段落的第一句便是主题句。开门见山地提出问题，后面的扩展句围绕主题句加以说明、支持、补充和解释。例如：例1.【教材p058】【主题句】Noonecanavoidbeinginfluencedbyadvertisements.【扩展句1】Muchaswemayprideourselvesonourgoodtaste,wearenolongerfreetochoosethethingswewant,(理由1)foradvertisingexertsasuitableinfluenceonus.【扩展句2】Intheireffortstopersuadeustobuythisorthatproduct,(理由2)advertisershavemadeaclosestudyofhumannatureandhaveclassifiedallourlittleweakness.【扩展句1.2补充、支撑主题】例2.【主题句】SlaveryintheUnitedStatesexistedalmostunchangedfor250years.【扩展句1】Duringthistime,mostslaveswerenotallowedtomarryortoraisefamilies.【扩展句2】Usuallytheywerenotallowedtolearntoread.【扩展句3】Itwasverydangerousforaslavetotravel,sinceevenfreeNegroescouldbekidnappedandsoldatanytime.【结尾句】

Undertheseconditions,itwasalmostimpossibleforthemtoorganizetohelpeachother.位于段尾：主题句位于段尾便于总结全段的内容，给读者以深刻的印象。例如：例3.

【扩展句1,接续上段主题】Similarly,inordertowritesuccessfulanswerstoessayquestionsonhistoryoranthropologyexaminations,astudentmustarrangetherelevantfactsandopinionsaccordingtosomeacceptedpatternofparagraphstructure.【扩展句2】

And

certainlywhenastudentwritesabookreportforEnglish,oracritiquesforpoliticsstudies,oratermpaperforsociology,styleandorganizationareoftenasimportantascontent.【主题句】Clearly,theabilitytowritewellorganized,conciseparagraphsandessaysisessentialtoastudent’ssuccessinalmostalluniversitycourses.

位于段中：位于段中的主题句起承上启下的作用，这类主题句多起转折作用，一般由“but,however,yet,anyhow,nevertheless”等词连接，用于引起下文。例如：例4.Whatweteachourselvessometimesindeedismoreusefulthanwhatwelearnfromothers.Somegreatmenhadlittleornoschooling.【主题句，承上启下】Butthesegreatmenprobablystudiedharderbythemselvesthanmostboysdoinschool.【引出的下文】Thegreatestmindsdonotnecessarilyripenthequickest,ifyouhavenottakenpains,thenyoushouldbeashamed;butifyouhavedoneyourbest,youhaveonlytopersevere,formanyofthosewhohaveneverbeenabletodistinguishthemselvesatschoolhavebeenverysuccessfulinlifelater.【结尾句】WearetoldthatWellingtonandNapoleonwerebothdullboysatschool,andsowereNewtonandAlbertEinstein.3.1.2如何写扩展句和结尾句

围绕主题句展开，支持、说明和阐述主题句的句子便是扩展句。扩展句紧扣主题句中的关键词而展开，句子与句子之间逻辑清楚，上下转承结合得当，简明扼要，重点突出。一般来说，每个自然段除了主题句与结尾句之外，还包含了3－6个扩展句。所以，写好了扩展句便基本上完成一个自然段落。一旦定下了主题和关键词，作者便按照自己的思路来组织段落中的句子，句子之间要具有连贯性，就必须由一系列的逻辑关系构成，例如：并列关系，因果关系，递进关系，转折关系，解释关系，概括关系，顺序关系，让步关系，对照比较关系，转换关系等等，这些逻辑关系可由一系列的过渡词(transitionalwords)来完成。过渡词在句子与句子之间、段落与段落之间起到承上启下的作用，使句子或段落之间的衔接自然、连贯，逻辑合理，结构严谨，故极为重要。例如：TheWorldIsGettingSmallerandSmaller

“Itisabigbigworld.”Thisisthebeginningofapopularsongtitled“bigbigworld”.Whileinthereallife,the

lyricsmayhavetochangeto“Itisasmallsmallworld.”

文章开头使用的是瑞典流行歌手Emilia

一首流行于世界各国的歌曲“Big,bigworld”中的歌词作为开头。然后使用转折过渡词“while”，引出主题：“世界正在变得越来越小”。

由于扩展句和结尾句的写作牵涉到段落的完成，写好了扩展句也就基本完成了一个自然段落。因而，不妨结合段落展开一起谈更合实际。段落展开自有其标准和方法，就标准而言，不外统一性、连贯性和过渡性(承上启下)【详见教材pp062--070】。3.2段落展开

段落展开方法多种，因文体而异，最常用的主要有如下8种：【参见教材pp071-106】1)时间顺序法2)空间顺序法3)举例说明法4)比较对照法5)因果分析法6)定义法7)分类法8)综合法

1)时间顺序法(DevelopmentbyTime)：即按事件发展的时间先后顺序依次展开。常用过渡词语有：first,second,finally,then,next,later,atlast,afterwards,before,after,presently,meanwhile,soon,until,atlast,simultaneously,afterawhile,atthattime,inthemeantime,inthepast,etc.例如：

例1)WehadahardtimegettingPeteroutofthewellhehadfalleninto.

First

wefashionedaropebylinkingourbeltstogether.

Then

weloweredittoPeter,tellinghimtograsptheend.

After

hehadholdofthebelt-rope,webegantopullhimslowly,inchbyinch,outofthewell.

During

hisascent,noonedaredspeakaword.

Finally

wecouldgrasphisarms,andwithashoutofrelief,wepulledhimoutontothegrassyband.

【此法大多用于记叙文(narration)】

例2)Amanalmosthadaterribleaccidentthismorning.Hewasstandingonthecornerwaitingforthetrafficlight(1)tochange.Whenthelightturnedgreen,hesteppedoffthecurb(控制)(2)andstartedacrossthestreetwithoutlookingtotheleftorright(3).Achildscreamed(4),andheturnedtolookwhenatruckcame(5)rumblingaroundthecorner.Thetruckdiverslammedonthebricks(6)justintimetoavoidhittingtheman.【事件顺序(sequenceofevents)】2)空间顺序法(DevelopmentbySpace)

按物体的空间位置(自左至右，由近到远，由上至下，由下到上，由里到外，由外到里，由中间到两边等顺序)来展开【常用于描写文(description)段落写作】。常用的过渡词语如下：

beyond,nearby,closeto,above,outside,aheadof,under,far,infrontof,behind,farther,nextto,below,over,oppositeto,beneath,onthetop,inthecenterof,between,adjacentto,inthedistance,across,inthemiddleof,around,ontherightside,on(to)the

left(right),等。

Downthemiddleofthevalleyrunsaclear,faststreaminwhichonemayfish.Inthelowlandalongthestreamarethefarmlands;beyondthemarethepastures.Behindthetopsofthefirsthillsarethebigmountains.Attheverytopinthepure,brownrockofEIErmitanoMountain,whichshowssnowuntilthemiddleofsummer.Flowerscoverthepasturelandsinseason.【随着空间位置的移动，恍若身临其境！】3)举例说明法(Example&illustration)

当段落的主题为一理论性论点时，就需要举例或例证来加以支持，以说服读者。举例和例证使抽象的概念具体化，而所举的事例也应该具有充分的说服力，同时逻辑严密【多用于说明文(exposition)和议论文(argumentation)】。举例或例证法常用的过渡词有：forexample,acaseinpoint,forinstance,what’smore,foronething,inaddition,foranother,inconclusion,toillustrate,insummary,tobeginwith,asanillustration,

besides,furthermore,

moreover,incidentally,namely,thatis,等。例如：

(1)【主题】Wealthdoesalwaysnotgohandinhandwithhappiness.【扩1】Wealthmayencouragethoseweak-willedpersonstobeaddictedtosomeharmfulhabitssuchasdrug-takingorgambling,andbringabouttheirownruin.【扩2】Also,apersonmaylosehisreasonandgoastrayifheispassionatelydevotedtoseekingwealth.【结尾】Therefore,onecannevercountonwealthtoachievehappiness.

【扩展两点说明证明主题，结尾得出结论】(2)ProfTracysaidotherstudiessuggestthatwhatpeoplefindattractivehasbeenshapedbycenturiesofevolutionaryandculturalforces.Forexample,evolutionarytheoriessuggestwomenmaybeattractedtomaledisplaysofpridebecausetheyimplystatus,competenceandanabilitytoprovideforapartnerandoffspring.Mr

Bealladdedthatexpressionsofpridealsoexaggeratetypicallymasculinephysicalfeatures,suchasupperbodysizeandmuscularity.【1点2例】4)比较对照法

(Comparison&Contrast)

当段落的主题要指出两件以上事物的相同(similarities)或相异(differences)之处时，便可采用比较或对比的方法。

“比较”阐述所比对象的相似之处；“对比”阐述所比对象不同之处。一般采用两种方法来扩展：

1)对两项或多项事物的异同之处逐点进行比较对照，排列顺序为：

A1→←B1;A2→←B2;A3→←B3…2)对两项或多项事物的异同之处逐项进行比较对照，排列顺序为：

A1,A2,A3→←B1,B2,B3;…

例如：[比较1]:【主题】Thesamequalitiesthatmakepeoplegoodhouseguestsmakethemgoodhospitalpatients.(A1)Goodhouseguestscanexpectareasonableamountofserviceandeffortontheirbehalf,and(B1)hospitalpatientscanalso.(A2)Guestshavetoadjusttowhatisforthemachange,(B2)andcertainlyhospitalpatientsmustdothesame.Nooneappreciatesacomplaining,unpleasant,unappreciative(A3)houseguest,andthehospitalstaffis(B3)noexception.(A4)Houseguestswhoexpectvastchangestobemadefortheirbenefitarenotpopularforlong.

Certainlynursesandotherpersonnelwiththeirroutinesfeelthesamewayabout(B4)patientsintheircare.Justas(A5)houseguestsmustmakeadjustmentstoenjoytheirvisits,so(B5)patientsmustmakeadjustmentstomaketheirstaysreasonablypleasantandsatisfyingunderthecircumstances.[AB1→AB2→AB3→AB4→AB5][比较2]：[教材p082例]【主题】TwodifferentgroupsofblackmusiciansgrewupinNewOrleans.Thefirstofthese,theslaves,broughtwiththem(A1)themusicofAfricaandtheinfluenceofCaribbeanmusic.(A2)Denied

educationandopportunitybyslavery,they(A3)improvised

makinginstrumentfromgourds,bambooandbone.They(A4)createsongschargedwithemotionworldsongs,chants,andspirituals.In

contrasttotheslaves,thefreemenofcolor(B1)wereraisedasCreoles.(B2)FormallyeducatedandsometimessenttoEuropeanschools,theywere(B3)wellversedinclassicalmusicandthey(B4)playedclassicalinstrument.DuringtheReconstructionperiod,thesetwogroupsofmusicianswereflungtogether.Thebrilliantchildofthisunlikelyunionwasjazz.[A1234→←B1234](对比)：[p086例句]AlthoughEuropeanfootballistheparentofAmericanfootball,

【主题】thetwogamesshowseveralmajordifferences.(A1)Europeanfootball,sometimescallassociationfootballorsoccer,isplayedin80countries,makingitthemostwidelyplayedsportintheworld,(B1)Americanfootball,ontheotherhand,ispopularonlyinNorthAmerica(theunitedStatesanCanada).(A2)Soccerisplayedby11playerswitharoundball;while(B2)football,eventhoughplayedby11playersinsomewhatdifferentpositionsonthefield,isplayedwithanelongatedroundball.(A3)Soccerhaslittlebodycontactbetweenplayersandthereforerequiresnospecialprotectiveequipment.(B3)Football,inwhichplayersmakemaximumuseofbodycontacttoblockarunningball-carrierandhisteammates,requiresspecialheadgearandpadding.(A4)Insoccer,however,theballisadvancedtowardthegoalbykickingitorbybuttingitwiththehead.(B4)Infootball,ontheotherhand,theballispassedfromhandtohandorcarriedinthehandsacrosstheopponent’sgoal.【结尾句】ThesearejustafewoffeaturesthatdistinguishassociationandAmericanfootball.[AB1→AB2→AB3→AB4]5)因果分析法(Cause&Effect)

当段落的主题要解释“为什么”(Why)时，便可采用“因果法”。因果法根据事物的原因(cause)推导出来结果(effect)，它以事实(fact)和证据(evidence)为根据，前后过程合乎逻辑和常理。因果关系可以主题句陈述结果，扩展句分析原因(果→因)，或反之(因→果)。此外，还可一因一果和多果多因。

因果分析法常用过渡词：Because,since,for,so,thus,asaresult,accordingly,resultin,that’swhy,等等。例如：1)[教材p087例](果)Ienjoylivinginbigcities.(因1)Themainreasonisthatitisveryconveniencetoliveinbigcities.(例1)Thereisfastpublictransport,(例2)awidevarietyofgoodstochoosefrom,(例3)allthelatestmodernconveniencesand(例4)plentyofpublicplacesforenjoyment.(因2)Aboveall,thebetterhealthcaresystemhelpsyouliveingreatercomfort.[先果后因，1果2因]

2)[p088例](果)Cigarettesmokingcontainsnicotine,severalcancerproducingorirritatingsubstancesandcarbonmonoxidegas.Asaresult,(因1)damagetotheliningofbronchialtubes(损害气管)is(例1)muchmorecommonamongcigarettesmokersthannonsmokers,evenwhenthereisnoobviousdisease.(因2)Someofthesechangesareconsidered(例2)tobeprecancerous.Moreover(因3)

lungfunctionisgenerallyreducedamongcigarettesmokers.Worstofall,cigarettesmokingisagreaterhazardthanotherfactors---(例3)suchascommunityairpollution---inthecausationoflungchronicbronchitis(慢性支气管炎).[先果后因，一果多因]【它例见书，不再例举】6)定义法(ByDefinition)

当段落的主题阐述“是什么”(Whatis)时，便可用定义法(即下定义)。定义法用一段话来解释说明某事物的性质和特征等，定义的对象可以是一个抽象的概念或具体的事物，包括性质、特征、结构、用途、行为、原理、来源等等。下定义的方法一般按“分类→→详述”步骤展开。例如：

(教材p095例)Photosynthesis,whichoccursinalllandplantsandmanywaterplants,(定义)isafood-manufacturingprocess

uponwhichalllivingthingsdepend.(述1)Thewordismadeupoftwoterms---photo---meaninglight,and---synthesis---,inchemistrymeaningthecombinationoftwoormoresimpleelementsintoacomplexchemicalcompound.Moreprecisely,

(述2)

photosynthesisistheprocessbywhichplantsuseenergyoflighttoproducecompounds,suchassugarandstarch,formanumberofsubstancesincludingwaterandcarbondioxide.(述3)Inadditiontotheorganiccompounds,photosynthesisformsoxygen,whichisreleasedintotheair.(述4)Intheconversionoflightenergyintochemicalenergy,photosynthesisisaprimaryenergy-producingprocessforallplantandanimallife.[定义→述1234]【它例见书】7)分类法(ByClassification)

按性质、特征、形态、功用、成因等等属性将某一种人或事物进行分类而发展段落的方法，其写作目的在于区分不同的事物、观点、现象、概念等。具体步骤为，主题句提出分类，扩展句一一陈述和说明。但分类时难免要考虑分清范畴，陈述时也需一些例举来加以区分和说明，所以，它又有类似于定义法和举例法的地方。常用过渡词有：

todivide…into,toclassify…into,group…into,tofallintoclasses,accordingto,intermsof,dependingon,atthelevelofthereare…kinds(types,groups,classes,categories,sorts)of,等。例如：

Examinationsare(分类)ofthreekinds.(述1)Oneisthemachine-scored“objective”type.Inanobjectivetest,thestudentsanswerquestionsbydecidingonthebestchoiceamonganumberofalternativesgive.(述2)Anotheristhe“completion”type.Thiskindofexaminationrequiresthestudentstoaddawordorphrasetoasentence.(述3)Andthethirdtypeisessayexamination,inwhichthestudentsareaskedtowriteacompositiononagiventopic.Allthesekindsofexaminationsaredesignedtorevealwhatastudentmayhavelearnedinanyparticularcourse.

[分类→述123]【它例见书】8)综合法(Combination

ofMethods)

同时在段落发展中应用以上介绍的几种不同手段即为综合法。事实上，在多数情况下，段落写作都是各种不同方法的综合应用，很少单纯采用一种方法来展开段落或文章，常见的为两三种方法混合使用。例如：

Poetryisbranchofliterature(定义法)whichexploresideas,emotions,andexperiencesinadistinctiveformandstyle.Poetry,sometimescalled“verse”dependsgreatlyonthenaturalrhythmsandsoundsoflanguageforitsspecialeffects.(比较法)

Poetryevenmorethanprose,dependsonpreciseandsuggestivewording.Inotherwords,apoemsaysmuchinlittlespace.(比较法)