发展中国家中的家用水处理和安全的存储选择：对目前执行实践的一个回顾中英文翻译、外文文献翻译、外文翻译

外文资料theUnitedNations’InternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationDecade(1981–1990)failedtoachieveitsgoalofuniversalaccesstosafedrinkingwaterandsanitationby1990(WorldHealthOrganization[WHO],2003).Eventhoughservicelevelsrosebymorethan10percentduringthedecade,1.1billionpeoplestilllackedaccesstoimprovedwatersupplies,and2.4billionpeoplewerewithoutadequatesanitation,in1990(WHO/UNICEF,2000).Reasonscitedforthedecade’sfailureincludepopulationgrowth,fundinglimitations,inadequateoperationandmaintenance,andcontinuationofatraditional“businessasusual”approach(WHO/UNICEF,1992).TheworldisonscheduletomeettheMillenniumDevelopmentGoal(MDG),adoptedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyin2000andrevisedaftertheWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopmentinJohannesburg,to“halve,by2015,theproportionofpeoplewithoutsustainableaccesstosafedrinkingwaterandbasicsanitation”(WorldBankGroup,2004;WHO/UNICEF,2004).However,successstillleavesmorethan600millionpeoplewithoutaccesstosafewaterin2015(WHO/UNICEF,2000).Inaddition,althoughtheMDGtargetspecificallystatestheprovisionof“safe”drinkingwater,themetricusedtoassesstheMDGtargetistheprovisionofwaterfrom“improved”sources,suchasboreholesorhouseholdconnections,asitisdifficulttoassesswhetherwaterissafeatthehouseholdlevel(WHO/UNICEF,2004).Thus,manymorepeoplethanestimatedmaydrinkunsafewaterfromimprovedsources.HOUSEHOLDWATERTREATMENTANDSAFESTORAGEToovercomethedifficultiesinprovidingsafewaterandsanitationtothosewholackit,weneedtomoveawayfrom“businessasusual”andresearchnovelinterventionsandeffectiveimplementationstrategiesthatcanincreasetheadoptionoftechnologiesandimproveprospectsforsustainability.Despitegeneralsupportforwatersupplyandsanitation,themostappropriateandeffectiveinterventionsindevelopingcountriesaresubjecttosignificantdebate.Theweaklinksamongthewater,health,andfinancialsectorscouldbeimprovedbycommunicationprogramsemphasizinghealth1—aswellasmicro-andmacroeconomic—benefitsthatcouldbegained.Thenewfocusonnovelinterventionshasledresearcherstore-evaluatethedominantparadigmthathasguidedwaterandsanitationactivitiessincethe1980s.Aliteraturereviewof144studiesbyEsreyetal.(1991)representstheoldparadigm,concludingthatsanitationandhygieneeducationyieldgreaterreductionsindiarrhealdisease(36percentand33percent,respectively)thanwatersupplyorwaterqualityinterventions.2However,amorerecentmeta-analysiscommissionedbytheWorldBankcontradictedthesefindings,showingthathygieneeducationandwaterqualityimprovementsaremoreeffectiveatreducingtheincidenceofdiarrhealdisease(42percentand39percent,respectively)thansanitationprovisionandwatersupply(24percentand23percent,respectively)(Fewtrell&Colford,2004).Thediscrepancybetweenthesefindingscanbeattributedinparttoadifferenceininterventionmethodology.Esreyetal.(1991)reviewedstudiesthatlargelymeasuredtheimpactofwaterqualityimprovementsatthesource(i.e.,thewellheadorcommunitytap).Since1996,alargebodyofpublishedworkhasexaminedthehealthimpactofinterventionsthatimprovewaterqualityatthepointofusethroughhouseholdwatertreatmentandsafestorage(HWTS;Fewtrell&Colford,2004).Theserecentstudies—manyofthemrandomizedcontrolledinterventiontrials—havehighlightedtheroleofdrinkingwatercontaminationduringcollection,transport,andstorage(Clasen&Bastable,2003),andthehealthvalueofeffectiveHWTS(Clasenetal.,2004;Quicketal.,1999,2002;Conroyetal.,1999,2001;Relleretal.,2003).In2003,astheevidenceforthehealthbenefitsofHWTSmethodsgrew,institutionsfromacademia,government,NGOs,andtheprivatesectorformedtheInternationalNetworktoPromoteHouseholdWaterTreatmentandSafeStorage,housedattheWorldHealthOrganizationinGeneva,Switzerland.Itsstatedgoalis“tocontributetoasignificantreductioninwaterbornedisease,especiallyamongvulnerablepopulations,bypromotinghouseholdwatertreatmentandsafestorageasakeycomponentofwater,sanitation,andhygieneprogrammes”(WHO,2005).HWTSOPTIONSThisarticlesummarizesfiveofthemostcommonHWTSoptions—chlorination,filtration(biosandandceramic),solardisinfection,combinedfiltration/chlorination,andcombinedflocculation/chlorination—anddescribesimplementationstrategiesforeachoption.3Weidentifyimplementingorganizationsandthesuccesses,challenges,andobstaclestheyhaveencounteredintheirprojects.Weconsidersourcesoffundingandthepotentialtodistributeandsustaineachoptiononalargescale,andproposegoalsforfutureresearchandimplementation.Thisarticlefocusesonpoint-of-usedrinkingwatertreatmentandsafestorageoptions,whichcanacceleratethehealthgainsassociatedwithimprovedwateruntilthelonger-termgoalofuniversalaccesstopiped,treatedwaterisachieved.Bypreventingdisease,HWTSpracticescancontributetopovertyalleviationanddevelopment.Theirwidespreaduse,inconjunctionwithhygieneeducationandsanitation,couldsavemillionsoflivesuntiltheinfrastructuretoreliablydeliversafewatertotheentireworldpopulationhasbeencreated.WeuseaconsistentevaluationschemeforeachoftheHWTSoptionsdiscussed(seeTable1):1.DoestheHWTSoptionremoveorinactivateviral,bacterial,andparasiticpathogensinwaterinalaboratorysetting?;2.Inthefield,istheHWTSoptionacceptable,canitbeusedcorrectly,anddoesitreducediseaseamongusers?3.IstheHWTSoptionfeasibleatalargescale?Thesodiumhypochloritesolutionispackagedinabottlewithdirectionsinstructinguserstoaddonefullbottlecapofthesolutiontoclearwater(ortwocapstoturbidwater)inastandard-sizedstoragecontainer,agitate,andwait30minutesbeforedrinking.Infourrandomizedcontrolledtrials,theSWSreducedtheriskofdiarrhealdiseaseby44–84percent(Lubyetal.,2004;Quicketal.,1999,2002;Semenzaetal.,1998).AtconcentrationsusedinHWTSprograms,chlorineeffectivelyinactivatesbacteriaandsomeviruses(AmericanWaterWorksAssociation,1999);however,itisnoteffectiveatinactivatingsomeprotozoa,suchascryptosporidium.5InitialresearchshowswatertreatedwiththeSWSdoesnotexceedWHOguidelinesfordisinfectionby-products,whicharepotentiallycancer-causingagents(CDC,unpublisheddata).BecausetheconcentrationofthechlorinesolutionusedinSWSprogramsislow,theenvironmentalimpactsofthesolutionareminimal.Chlorination:ImplementationStrategiesSWSimplementationhasvariedaccordingtolocalpartnershipsandunderlyingsocialandeconomicconditions.Thedisinfectantsolutionhasbeendistributedatnationalandsubnationallevelsin13nationalandsubnationallevelsin13countriesthroughsocialmarketingcampaigns,inpartnershipwiththeNGOPopulationServicesInternational(PSI).InIndonesia,thesolutionisdistributedprimarilybyprivatesectorefforts,ledbyalocalmanufacturingcompany.Inseveralcountries—includingEcuador,Laos,Haiti,andNepal—theministriesofhealthorlocalNGOsruntheSWSprogramsatthecommunitylevel.InKabul,Afghanistan,theSWSisprovidedatnochargetopregnantwomenreceivingantenatalcare.TheSWShasalsobeendistributedfreeofchargeinanumberofdisasterareas,includingIndonesia,India,andMyanmarfollowingthe2004tsunami,andalsoinKenya,Bolivia,Haiti,Indonesia,andMadagascarafterothernaturaldisasters.WhenSWSprogramsareinplace,theproduct’sreadyavailabilitygreatlyfacilitatesemergencyresponse.TheCDChasdevelopedanimplementationmanualandprovidestechnicalassistancetoorganizationsimplementingSWSprojects(CDC,2001).SolarDisinfection:BenefitsandDrawbacksThebenefitsofSODISinclude:•Provenreductionofbacteria,viruses,andprotozoa;•Provenhealthimpact;•Acceptabilitytousersbecauseoftheminimalcosttotreatwater,easeofuse,andminimalchangeinwatertaste;and•Unlikelyrecontaminationbecausewaterisconsumeddirectlyfromthesmall,narrowneckedbottles(withcaps)inwhichitistreated.Thedrawbacksinclude:•Needtopretreatwaterthatappearsslightlydirty;8•Lowuseracceptabilitybecauseofthelimitedvolumeofwaterthatcanbetreatedatonetimeandthelengthoftimerequiredtotreatit;and•Requiresalargesupplyofintact,clean,andproperlysizedplasticbottles.SolarDisinfection:ImplementationStrategiesAsavirtuallyzero-costtechnology,SODISfacesmarketingconstraints.Since2001,localNGOsinsevencountriesinLatinAmerica—aswellasinUzbekistan,Pakistan,India,Nepal,SriLanka,Indonesia,andKenya—aredisseminatingSODISbytrainingandeducatingusersatthegrassrootslevel,providingtechnicalassistancetopartnerorganizations,lobbyingkeyplayers,andestablishinginformationnetworks.TheprogramhasbeenfundedbytheAVINAandSolaquaFoundations,privateandcorporatesponsors,andofficialdevelopmentassistance.TheprogramhasshownthatSODISisbestpromotedanddisseminatedbylocalinstitutionswithexperienceincommunityhealtheducation.Creatingawarenessoftheimportanceoftreatingdrinkingwaterandestablishingcorrespondingchangesinbehaviorrequiresalong-termtrainingapproachandrepeatedcontactwiththecommunity.TheSwissFederalInstituteforEnvironmentalScienceandTechnologyhasdevelopedanimplementationmanual,andprovidestechnicalassistancetoNGOsimplementingSODIS.Themethod,whichhasbeendisseminatedinmorethan20developingcountries,isregularlyappliedbymorethanonemillionusers.CeramicFiltration:ImplementationStrategiesPFPisaU.S.-basedNGOwhosemissionistobuildaninternationalnetworkofpottersconcernedwithpeaceandjusticeissues.PFPhelpspotterslearnappropriatetechnologiesandmarketingskillsthatimprovetheirlivelihoodsandsustaintheirenvironmentandculturaltraditions.Afterstaffmemberswereintroducedtotheceramicfilterdesign,PFPestablishedafilter-makingfactoryinManagua,Nicaragua.Fundingfortheprojectinitiallycamefromprivatedonations.Thefilterfactoryisnowaself-financedmicroenterpriseinNicaragua.NGOspayUS$10perfilter,andtransportthefiltersthemselvestoprojectlocations.From1999–2004,PFPmadeandsoldatotalof23,000filtersinNicaragua.PFPhasalsoestablishedfilter-makingfactoriesin12othercountries,contractedbyorganizationsthatprovidefundingfortechnicalassistanceandfactoryconstruction.Inthecurrentmodel,thefactorysellsfilterstoNGOs,whothenimplementawaterprogram.ThismodelisattractivetoNGOsbecausetheydonothavetoproducethefilters,butitsuffersfromalackofconsistenttrainingandeducationforboththeNGOimplementersandtheusers.Poorcleaningandmaintenanceofthefilteroftenleadstorecontaminationoffinishedwater(Lantagne,2001b).Toaddressthisissue,PFPisworkingwithcooperatingNGOstodevelop,implement,andevaluateaneducationalprogramthatincludessafestorage,properproceduresforcleaningthefilter,andfollow-upvisitstoensureproperusecontinuesandbrokenfiltersarereplaced.Thiseducationalcomponentiscriticalfortherealworldperformanceofthefiltertomatchitseffectivenessinthelaboratory,andtotestwhetherfiltersmadewithlocallyproducedmaterialswillpreventdiarrhea.BioSandFiltration:BenefitsandDrawbacksThebenefitsoftheBSFinclude:•Provenremovalofprotozoaandapproximately90percentofbacteria;•Highuseracceptabilityduetoeaseofuse,andimprovedlookandtasteofwater;•Producedfromlocallyavailablematerials;•One-timeinstallationwithfewmaintenancerequirements;and•Longlife.ThedrawbacksoftheBSFinclude:•Lowrateofvirusinactivation;•Lackofresidualprotectionandremovaloflessthan100percentofthebacteria,whichleadstorecontamination;•Thecurrentlackofstudiesprovinghealthimpact;and•Difficultyintransportandhighinitialcost,whichmakescalabilitymorechallenging.TheBSFhasbeenimplementedthroughtwomainstrategies.IntheNGOmodel,employedinCambodiaandothercountries,thecostofthefiltersissubsidized,andaNGOpromotestheuseoftheBSFinthecommunityandprovidesthefilters.Inthemicro-entrepreneurmodel,usedinKenyaandtheDominicanRepublic,localentrepreneursconstructtheBSF,receivetrainingandstart-upmaterials,andthendevelopmicro-enterprisestosellfilterswithintheircommunities.FUTUREWORKAlthoughmuchresearchhasbeencompletedonHWTSoptions,moreisneeded,including:•Healthimpactstudies:•OftheHWTSoptionsthatarewidelydistributedbuthavenotyetbeenproveneffectiveatreducingdisease;•Ofalarge-scalereal-worldproject,suchasoneofthenationalorsub-nationalPSISWSprojects;and•Investigationsoftheeconomicsofmovingtolarge-scaleprojects,includingcostanalysis,economicdemandassessment,andsustainability;and•DeterminationoftherelativeandabsoluteimpactofHWTSoptionsandotherwater,sanitation,andhygiene(WASH)interventions,andresearchinvestigatingoptimalcombinationsofHWTSandWASHinterventions.Inaddition,importantoperationalresearchquestionsremain,including:•WhatmotivatesuserstopurchaseanduseaHWTSoption?;•Whatarecurrentpurchase(use)andrepurchase(sustaineduse)ratesindifferentdemographic,socio-economic,andculturalgroups;andhowdothesecorrelatewithwaterbornediseaseprevalencerates?;•WhatisthehealthimpactofroutineversussporadicuseofHWTSoptionsinthehome?;•Whatareoptimalbehavior-changestrategiesforhygieneandsanitationpractices;andhowdowebestincorporatetheseintodifferentHWTSimplementationstrategies?;and•Whatarethemostsustainableandcosteffectivewaystoreachruralandremoteareas?Toaddresstheseresearchquestions,theHWTScommunityshouldcontinuetoworkwithacademicinstitutionsthatprovidetechnicalknowledgeandstudentlabor.TheUniversityofNorthCarolina,EmoryUniversity,MIT,JohnsHopkinsUniversity,andtheLondonSchoolofHygieneandTropicalMedicine,amongothers,haveexistingprogramsinpublichealthorengineeringdepartmentsthatresearchHWTSoptions.Thispathhasresultedinnumeroussuccesses,suchasithlonger-termendpointsinchildren,includinggrowth,cognitivedevelopment,andmortality.•Developmentofreal-term,practicalparametersandperformancemeasurestopredictsafetyofdrinkingwaterindevelopingcountries;•Investigationsoftheeconomicsofmovingtolarge-scaleprojects,includingcostanalysis,economicdemandassessment,andsustainability;and•DeterminationoftherelativeandabsoluteimpactofHWTSoptionsandotherwater,sanitation,andhygiene(WASH)interventions,andresearchinvestigatingoptimalcombinationsofHWTSandWASHinterventions.Inaddition,importantoperationalresearchquestionsremain,including:•WhatmotivatesuserstopurchaseanduseaHWTSoption?;•Whatarecurrentpurchase(use)andrepurchase(sustaineduse)ratesindifferentdemographic,socio-economic,andculturalgroups;andhowdothesecorrelatewithwaterbornediseaseprevalencerates?;•WhatisthehealthimpactofroutineversussporadicuseofHWTSoptionsinthehome?;•Whatareoptimalbehavior-changestrategiesforhygieneandsanitationpractices;andhowdowebestincorporatetheseintodifferentHWTSimplementationstrategies?;and•Whatarethemostsustainableandcosteffectivewaystoreachruralandremoteareas?Toaddresstheseresearchquestions,theHWTScommunityshouldcontinuetoworkwithacademicinstitutionsthatprovidetechnicalknowledgeandstudentlabor.TheUniversityofNorthCarolina,EmoryUniversity,MIT,JohnsHopkinsUniversity,andtheLondonSchoolofHygieneandTropicalMedicine,amongothers,haveexistingprogramsinpublichealthorengineeringdepartmentsthatresearchHWTSoptions.Thispathhasresultedinnumeroussuccesses,suchasthedevelopmentofacomputermodeltoascertainSODISappropriatenessforanyareaoftheworldusingNASAdata(Oatesetal.,2002).Onequestiontoponder:arestudentsbeingtrainedforjobopportunitiesthatdonotyetexist?TheinterestinHWTSoptionsisveryhighatthestudentlevel.TheHWTScommunityshouldseektoidentifyandcoordinatefuturehumanresourceswiththegrowingnumberofgraduateswithrelevantfieldexperience.Lastly,HWTSoptionsneedtobeimplementedatscale,andinconjunctionwithotherwaterandsanitationprogrammingtohelpreducediseaseburdenandalleviatepoverty.Adiversearrayofcreativepartners,withadequatecapitalandtechnicalsupport,willbeneededtocompletethiswork.DISCUSSIONManyresearchers,privatecompanies,faith-basedorganizations,internationalandlocalNGOs,donors,ministriesofhealth,andendusersareinterestedinHWTSoptionsandinmechanismsfortheirimplementation.Theevidencebasefortheseinterventionsiswell-establishedandgrowing,andanactiveprogramoffurthertechnicalandoperationsresearchisbeingpursuedonmultiplefronts.HWTSimplementationhasenjoyednumeroussuccesses.Firstandforemost,field-basedprogramshavedocumentedreductionsofdiarrhealdiseasesinendusers.Factorsthatcontributedtosuccessfulprogramsinclude:•TheabilitytoobtainqualityHWTSoptioncomponents(andanyreplacementparts)locally;•Behaviorchangecommunicationsincludingperson-to-personcommunicationsand/orsocialmarketing;and•Availabilityofimplementationmaterialsandtechnicalassistancetosupporton-the-groundimplementer.HWTSimplementationprojectshavealsoencounteredsignificantchallenges,including:•Questionsregardingthehealthimpactoftheseinterventionsinlarge-scale“real-world”situations;•Long-termsustainabilityoftheprojects,especiallylong-termaccesstosupplies;and•Scalinguptoefficientlyreachpeoplewithoutaccesstoimprovedwatersources.CONCLUSIONHWTSsystemsareproven,low-costinterventionsthathavethepotentialtoprovidesafewatertothosewhowillnothaveaccesstosafewatersourcesinthenearterm,andthussignificantlyreducemorbidityduetowaterbornediseasesandimprovethequalityoflife.HWTSimplementationshavedevelopedfromsmallpilotprojectsintonational-scaleprograms,andnowfacethechallengeofreachingthemorethan1.1billioninneedofsafedrinkingwater,andeffectivelyworkingwithotherwater,sanitation,andhygieneprogramstoachievethegreatesthealthimpact.Theactive,diverse,andexpandingcommunityofresearchers,privatecompanies,faith-basedorganizations,internationalandlocalNGOs,anddonorsinterestedinansweringthesequestionscanplayamajorroleinhelpingtheworldachievetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoaltohalve,by2015,theproportionofpeoplewithoutaccesstosafewater(WorldBankGroup,2004).Achievingthisgoal,andsurpassingit,willrequirecontinuedcollaboration,investment,andresearchanddevelopment,butitisourbesthopeforrapidlyreducingwaterbornediseaseanddeathindevelopingCountries.中文译文发展中国家中的家用水处理和安全的存储选择：对目前执行实践的一个回顾联合国的国际饮用水供应和卫生十年（1981-1990），直到1990年也没有让全世界的人都喝上干净的饮用水和使用良好的卫生设施（世界卫生组织，2003）。尽管在这十年间服务水平有了超过10%的提升，但是11亿人还是无法使用改善的水供应系统，24亿人在1990年还没有足够的卫生设备。（世界卫生组织/联合国儿童基金会，2000）十年失败的原因包括人口的增长，资金的局限性，使用和维护的不当以及传统“按部就班”方式的延续。（世界卫生组织/联合国儿童基金会，1992）.全世界计划实现2000年联合国大会上提出的“千年发展目标”。在约翰内斯堡举行的有关可持续发展的世界峰会上，它被修改为“到2015年为止，世界上一半人口可以喝到干净的饮用水和拥有基本卫生设施。”（世界银行，2004：世界卫生组织/联合国儿童基金会，2004）但是，到2015年的计划未必能成功，因为还有超过600万的人无法喝到干净的水。（世界卫生组织/联合国儿童基金会，2000）.此外，虽然“千年发展目标”明确指出其中“安全”饮用水，但是用来评价“千年发展目标”的标准是水来自于“改进”资源，比如说地上凿洞或者是修建用水管道。因为从日常用水的层面上来讲，很难判定水是否“安全”。（世界卫生组织/联合国儿童基金会，2004）因此，据估计越来越多的人可能会喝来自于改善水源的不干净的水。家庭水的净化处理及安全储存：为解决用户缺乏安全用水及相关卫生设施的问题，我们必须摒弃传统弊端，在加大技术运用及提升可持续前景的过程中，研究新的干预方案与有效的补给政策。在发展中国家，即使大多数人支持水源供给及卫生系统设备，最适宜且最有效的干预方案还是常常遭受相当大的质疑。通过执行强调健康及由此取得的宏观及微观的经济利益的交流方案，水、卫生和金融领域之间的薄弱环节可得以提升。研究者对新干预措施的研究焦点集中于再评估20世纪80年代以来的优势模式。144个案例的文献综述表明：卫生实施的应用和卫生教育的实施比采取“水源供给或水质干预”措施大大降低了腹泻的发病率（分别减少36%和33%）。然而，受世界银行委托进行的元分析却反驳了上述结果。他们认为保健教育及水质提升能更有效地减少腹泻发病率（分别减少42%和39%），而卫生设施及水源供应引起的发病率相对较高（分别减少24%和23%）。这些研究结果的差异在某种程度上可归因于干预方式的不同。埃斯里的学术评论仔细分析了水质提升在本质上带来的影响，如水源、公共水龙头等。自1996年以来，有相当数量的出版研究考察了通过家庭水净化处理和安全储存来提升水质的干预方案所起的健康卫生影响。这些最新的研究，其中很多是随机干预之法，强调了饮用水在收集、运输及储存中受到污染,以及在HWTS影响下的卫生价值。2003年，作为一种受益于HWTS的健康证据，学术界机构、政府、非政府组织和私营部门建立起国际互联网，以促进家庭水净化处理及安全储存。该组织为世界卫生组织，坐落于瑞士日内瓦。它的官方目标是：通过促进家庭水的氯化处理及安全储存作为水、卫生、保健工程的重要组成部分，尤其针对易感人群，为有效削减水质疾病做出贡献。这篇文章概述了5个最常见的HWTS方法：氯化、过滤（生物过滤法和陶粒过滤法）、日光消毒、组合过滤或氯化，以及组合絮凝或氯化；此外还描述了每种方法的补充策略。我们要组织及其在运行中遇到的成就、挑战及障碍。我们要考虑研究成果的来源及潜力，从而大规模地分配和维持每一种选择，为将来的研究与补给规划目标。这篇文章强调了饮用水的净化处理及安全储存的方法，用以加速卫生获得与水质提升，甚至达到广泛使用管道水、处理水等长远目标。通过预防疾病，HWTS实践可致力于扶贫及发展。该方法的广泛使用，在保健教育和卫生设施的协力下，可以拯救上百万生命，直到那个能将安全用水有效地传递到整个世界的基础设施的建立。我们将对讨论过的每一种HWTS方法使用一致的评价方案：1.HWTS方法消除或钝化了实验设置中的水中的病毒、细菌、寄生虫的病原体吗？2.在这个现场里，HWTS方法能被人接受吗？它能被正确地使用吗？它能减少使用者中的疾病吗？3.HWTS方法可大规模使用吗？次氯酸钠溶液装在瓶子里，和使用说明书包装在一起。满一瓶盖的次氯酸钠溶液可以净化一标准尺寸容器里的水（两瓶盖则可以净化浑浊的水），摇动后需要放置30分钟才能饮用。通过四个随机对照试验，SWS降低了腹泻病44%到84%的危险几率在HWTS浓度测试里，氯有效地阻碍了细菌以及一些病毒的活动（美国自来水厂协会，1999），然而，氯对于一些原生动物却不那么有效，例如隐孢子虫。5初期研究表明，在SWS处理下的水没有超过WHO对于消毒副产物的标准，其中可能含有潜在的致癌剂（CDC，未发表资料）。因为SWS程序所使用氯液浓度很低，所以该液体多于环境的影响微乎其微。用氯消毒的实施策略由于当地合作伙伴和潜在社会、经济状况的变动，导致了SWS的实施发生了一定的变化。这种消毒液已经通过社会市场营销活动分销到13个国家以及次于国家的层面上，特别是通过与非政府人口国际服务的合作。在印度尼西亚，这种溶液主要是通过由当地制造商管理的私营部门分销出去的。在一些国家，包括厄瓜多尔，老挝，海地以及尼迫尔—其卫生部门或是当地的非政府组织在基层广泛使用SWS。在阿富汗的喀布尔，对怀孕妇女提供免费的SWS产前护理。SWS对于一些灾区也同样实行免费分销，包括遭受2004年海啸的印度尼西亚，印度，以及缅甸，当然还包括遭受过其他自然灾害的肯尼亚，玻利维亚，海地，印尼和马达加斯加。有SWS的存在，一些产品在应付紧急事故时就能发挥更好的作用。美国疾病控制与预防中心已经建立了实施手册，以及对于实行SWS项目的组织提供技术援助（美国疾病控制与预防中心，2001）太阳能消毒：实施策略作为一项几乎零成本的技术，太阳能消毒实施策略正面临市场的限制。2001年以来，拉美七个国家的当地非政府组织同乌兹别克斯坦、巴基斯坦、印度、尼泊尔、斯里兰卡、印度尼西亚、肯尼亚一样通过培训和教育基层用户，向合作伙伴提供技术援助，游说主要参加者以及建立信息网络来传播太阳能消毒实施策略。该计划由美国阿维纳和Solaqua基金会，私人和企业赞助商以及官方提供资金和援助。该计划显示，当地一些有社区健康教育经验的机构使太阳能消毒实施策略得到了最广泛的传播和推广。要使大众认识到净化饮用水的重要性并建立相应的行为变化需要一个长期的培训方法并不断与社区联系。瑞士联邦理工学院为环境科学与技术专门制定了一本实施手册，并向实施太阳能消毒实施策略的非政府组织提供技术援助。该方法已在20多个发展中国家传播并拥有超过100万的定期用户。太阳能消毒的优点和缺点日光消毒的好处包括：①保证减少细菌，病毒以及原生动物②保证无污染③能被用户接受，因为用水量少，便于使用，以及几乎不改变水的味道④不可能再次污染，因为液体装在小的带瓶盖的容器里，并能直接使用