语言学重点概念

ChapteroneIntroduction

一、定义

1.语言学Linguistics

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

2.普通语言学GeneralLinguistics

ThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.

3.语言language

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征DesignFeatures

Itreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemof

communication.

语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性

Productivity多产性

Duality双重性

Displacement移位性

Culturaltransmission文化传递

(Darbitrariness

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguage

tohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions

⑵Productivity

Animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.

(3)Duality

Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.

(4)Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

(5)Culturaltransmission

Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsof

anylanguagesystem,thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted,notbyinstinct,animalsare

bornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.

5.语言能力Competence

Competenceistheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.

6.语言运用performance

Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

7.历时语言学Diachroniclinguistics

Thestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime,adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,which

studiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.

8.共时语言学Synchronicallinguistics

Thestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.

9.语言langue

Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.

10.言语parole

Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.

11.规定性Prescriptive

Itaimstolaydownrulesfbr“correct"behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshould

notsay.

12.描述性Descriptive

Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.

二、知识点

1.languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it'sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocial

environmentbyhumanbeings.

语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

2.几种观点和现象的提出者：

⑴瑞士语言学家F.deSaussureF.deSaussure:Langue和parole的区别

(2)U.S.AlinguistN.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomsky

inl950针对Saussure'slangue&parole提出Competence和performance

⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家

Sapir-一languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotionsand

desiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.

Hall--一languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherby

meansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.

Chomsky---fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthand

constructedoutofafinitesetofelements.

⑷U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockett美国语言学家CharlesHockett

提出了语言的识别特征designfeatures

3.theword'language'precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticular

language.

Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。

4.inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodofirstif

tostudylanguagefacts.

5.languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossiblefbrthe

linguisticstodealwithitallatonce.判断题

6.Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先引起语言学家注意

的是语言的发音。

三、问答题

1.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?

Phonetics--一ifsdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,ifsconcernedwithallthe

soundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.

Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems-theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguage

andthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.

Morphology■■-It'sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherules

bywhichwordsareformed.

Syntax------it*sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.

Semantics---Ifssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.

Pragmatics---thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.

Sociolinguistics-thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.

Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.

Appliedlinguistics-theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingand

learning.

2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?

Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeople

useandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefb匚

Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsfbrthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthe

arbitrarynatureoflanguage,ifsonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotany

innaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.

Atypicalexampletoillustratethe'arbitrariness'oflanguageis'arosebyanyothernamewouldsmell

assweef.

3.whatmakesmodemlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

Modemlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspoken

languagedate.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。

traditionalgrammarisprescriptive,itisbasedon'high'writtenlanguage.

传统语法是规定性的，研究，高级’书面语。

4.1smodemlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?why

Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage,unlessthevarious

statesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefroma

diachronicpointofview.

现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，

否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。

5.whichenjoyspriorityinmodemlinguistics,speechorwritings?

Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:

（DSpcechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.

（2）Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.

（3）speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.

6.howisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky's?

BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactual

useoflanguage,theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy

TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksat

languagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.

6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?

（Dlangueisabstract,relativelystable（2）paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,from

situationtosituation.

1/Whatislinguistics?

什么是语言学？

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticular

language,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics

语言学的研究范畴

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（普通语言学）

Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.（形态

学）」「

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法学）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言

学）

Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.

（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguistic

principlesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignand

secondlanguage.

Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,

（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机

语言学）

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写

Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,

ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaid

tobeprescriptive.

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodern

linguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,

whetheritis“correct“ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofa

languageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyis

moreimportant.

Speechandwriting口头语与书面语

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modemlinguisticsregardsthespoken

formoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.

Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespoken

languageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadof

communicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole语言和言语

TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,and

parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingle

outoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlangue

fromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthe

subjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用

ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950,s.

Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformance

theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthe

linguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

ChapterTwoPhonology

一、定义

1.宽式音标Broadtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.

2.窄式音标Narrowtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.

3.清音Voiceless

WhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapartJettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thc

soundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.

4.浊音Voicing

Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.

5.元音Vowel

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstream

passesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.

6.辅音Consonants

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthe

vocaltractarecalledconsonants.

7音位Phoneme

Thebasicunitinphonology,it'sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.

8.音位变体Allophones

Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophones

ofthatphoneme.

9音素phone

Aphoneticunitorsegment,itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it'saspeechsoundweuse

whenspeakingalanguage.

10.最小对立对Minimalpair

Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursin

thesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.

11.超切为特征Suprasegmental

Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures,

themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.

12.互补分布complementarydistributionP35

Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

13.语言的语音媒介Phonicmediumoflanguage

Thelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandarcofinterestto

linguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.

在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。

14.爆破音stops

Whenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwith

theobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.

theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]

二、知识点

1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,0001anguagesinthe

world,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.

2.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.

3.Phonetic组成

(l)Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学longestestablished,mostlydeveloped

(2)Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学

(3)Acousticphonetics声学语音学

4.articulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeech

Pharyngealcavity-咽腔

Oral口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhere

Nasal鼻腔

5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,the

extremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproduced

asisusedinArabicandFrench.

6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]

and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothe

sound[j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthe

sounds[t]and[d].

7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[rj]

9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.

10.Sequentialrules例子

Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobey

thefollowingthreerules:

(Dthefirstphonememustbe/s/

(2)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/

(3)thethirdphonememustbe/I/or/r/or/w

11.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone

三、问答题

1.whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?

Articulatory-describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowthey

differ.

Auditory—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthat

phoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.

Acoustic—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakerto

thehearer.

发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。

听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。

声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。

2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?

ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation

3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemore

interestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?

语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什

么？

Phonetics-descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.

Phonology-descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctionto

distinguishmeaning.

Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcos

differencesinmeaning.

4.what,saphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?

Phone-aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.

Phoneme■一acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.

Allophones-actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.

5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetina

language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要？

Minimalpair-twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthat

occursinthesameposition.

除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.

Minimalset-agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.

一组具有上述特征的语音组合.

Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyits

phonemes.

通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组，音位学家能辨别出它的音位.

6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?

Broadtranscription-onelettersymbolfbronesound.

Narrowtranscription-diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferences

betweensounds.

7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.

有序规则Sequentialrules

Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.

同化规则Assimilationrules

Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby'copying'afeatureofasequentialphoneme,

thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.

省略规则Deletionrule

Ifsaphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographically

represented.

ChapterThreeMorphology

一、定义

1.词素Morpheme

Thebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.

2.自由词素FreeMorpheme

Freemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.

3.黏着词素Boundmorphemes

Boundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwith

othermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.

4.词根Root

Rootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.

5.词缀Affix

Thecollectivetermfbrthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanother

morpheme.

6.曲折词缀inflectionalaffixes

Themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchas

number,tense,degreeandcase.

7.派生词缀Derivationalaffixes

Themanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.

8.词干Stem

Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded,astemcanbeabound

root,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.

9.形态学规则Morphologicalrules

Theyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.

10.前缀Prefix

Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechofthe

originalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes'be-and4en(m)-4

11.后缀Suffix

Suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmany

caseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainst

Over-generalization.

二、知识点

Inflectionalmorphology

1.Morphology

Derivationalmorphology

Freemorphemes

MorphemesRoot

BoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixes

Affixes

Prefix

Derivationalaffixes

2.somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix

4.Compoundfeatures:

(1)orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithouta

hypheninbetween.

(2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.

(3)semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallits

component

ChapterFourSyntax

一、定义

L句子sentence

Astructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacomplete

statement,questionorcommand.

2.语言运用Linguisticcompetence

Thesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.

3.谓语Predicate

Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingabout

thesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.

4.定式子句FiniteClause

Aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.

5.从属子句EmbeddedClause(EC)

Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnonnallycalledanEC.

6.主要子句MatrixClause

Inacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.

7.层次结构Hierarchicalstructure

Thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntactic

categoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.

8.语法关系Grammaticalrelations

Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.

9.句法类型Syntacticcategory

Awordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.

■.表层结向S-structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement

11.深层结构D・structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.

12.普遍语法Generalgrammar

Asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersabout

naturelanguage.

13.移动a规则Movea

Ageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.

14.句法移位Syntacticmovement

Syntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.

15.转换原则Transformationrules

Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whoseoperation

maychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.

16.X标杆理论X-bartheory

Ageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoasingle

format:X“一(Spec)X(Compl).

一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式

X”一(Spec)X(Compl)

a:X"b:X"SpecX'

SpecX'X'Xcompl

Xcomplement

NP'thestudentwholikeslinguistics,consistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,Nthe

head,Sthecomplement.NP(...)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句

是补足语。

二、知识点

1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.

2.我们把syntax的学习看作asystemofrulesthatgoverntheformationofgrammaticalsentence.

3.Amajorgoaloflinguisticsistoshowwithaconsistentandexplicitgrammaticaltheoryhow

syntacticrulesaccountforthisgrammaticalknowledge.

4.判断题：thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothe

numberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguagearcabletoproduceandcomprehend.

5.半断题:Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionor

occurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.

一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或

事件。

6.句子的分类simplesentence

Typesofsentencescoordinateorcompoundsentence

Complexsentence

简单句■■-Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasits

ownsentence.

并歹峋合成句-Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,such

as“but",''and",ect.

复合句一Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.

复合句的特点：

(DAnembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause

(2)MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas"that”

(3)Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstands

independentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.

子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第

秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。

7.whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranother

inasequence.

8.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子结构层次特点

sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPorverb

phraseVP,groupedtogether.

9.ThepointsatwhichthetreebrachesatvariouslevelsarecalledBranchingnodes分叉点

lO.lnadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructureof

sentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.

11.句法类型

M用or…主要词类open,canaddnewwords

Lexicalcategory名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,Adv

SyntacticMinor...次要词类close,wordsarefixed

Categories限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj』nt

Phrasalcategory

Apartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexical

category)oraphrase(calledphrasalcategory)thatperfbnnsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchas

thesubjectinasentence.

12.短语类型

NounPhraseNP

PhrasalVerbPhraseVP

CategoriesPrepositionPhrasePP

AdjectivePhraseAP

13.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachmounphraseinthesentencerelates

totheverb,inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto'who'does'what'to'whom'.

14.weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof.

15.Combinationalrulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehuman

memory,alsotheserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleoutthe

impossibleones

组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能

的句子，而排除不可能的句子。

16.rulesangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheir

recursiveproperties.Itcapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceand

enablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.

循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。

17.移位类型

SyntacticNP-movement=t'sinvolvingthemovementofanounphrase.

Movement名词短语的移位

WH-movement=Itchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.

陈述变疑问句

AUX-...=themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentenceinitialposition.

助动词移位到句首的移位

18.普遍语法的广义原则

GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition/口AdjacencyCondition

格条彳牛---anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,orby

AUXtothesubjectposition.

名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。

相邻条件一acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhyno

otherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.

格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之

间。

19.Universa!Grammarisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalves增and减setonthe

Adjacencycondition.withEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe增value,

whileforFrench-typelanguage,theparameterissetto减value.

三、问答题

1.Usetheappropriatephrasestructurerulestodrawalabeledconstituentstructuretreediagramfor

eachofthefollowingsentences.

(Dthetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind

(2)MarypromisedJohntoseethedoctor.

Chapter5Semantics

一、定义

1.命名论Thenam