学术英语写作Unit 7 Research Proposal

Unit7ResearchProposalWhatisaresearchproposal?Whentowritearesearchproposal?PurposeofaresearchproposalHowtopreparearesearchproposal?ElementsoftheresearchproposalHowtowritearesearchproposal?CommonmistakesinaproposalwritingFeasibilityAnalysis(discussedinanotherlecture)Budgetanalysis(discussedinanotherlecture)Summary2021/5/91WhatisaresearchproposalAresearchproposalisashortdocument(1to2pages)thatidentifiesandoutlinesthemaincomponentsofyourresearch.Theyare:1.Thepurposeofyourresearch2.Theintendedaudience3.Yourrole4.Anopeningstatementorhypothesis5.Briefdescriptionofintendedmethodology,data,materials6.Expectedoutcomes(ifany)2021/5/92Thepurposeoftheresearch(1)Therearemanyreasonsfordoingaresearch-basedprogram.Researchis,afterall,findingoutsomethingyoudon'tknow.Onecouldwriteathesistoreviewandexplaincollated（核对的）factualdata.Onecouldalsoconductanalyticalresearchtostudyaparticularsubjectindepth.Onecoulddiscuss,debateand/orargueacertaintopic,orcomeoutwithanewhypothesis/theory.Ontheotherhand,onecouldalsotrypersuadingotherstobelieveinwhats/heisproposing.2021/5/93Thepurposeoftheresearch(2)Youwilloftenfindconflictingideas,biases,andotherinfluenceswhilstconductingyourresearch.Youmayevendiscoverthingsinthecourseofyourresearchthatarecontradictorytoyourpersonalthoughts,ethicsandideals.Thesecouldhinderyourresearch,giverisetodoubts,orcausealackofinterestinthework.Qualityresearchdemandsobjectivity,cautioninassertion,solidbackingfromsources/experimentalresults,andclearrationalthinking.Youshouldbepreparedforcontingencies(偶然性),tochallengewidely-acceptednorms/rulesinyourquesttoseekfurtherknowledge.2021/5/94TheintendedaudienceYouwillneedtoidentifytheaudienceforyourwork.Obviously,ifyouaredoingascientifically-inclinedstudyintotheeffectsofNeonatomsunderintenseheat,say,yourtargetaudiencewillnotlikelybeShakespeareanthespians(演员).However,yourresearchmayalsotraverseseveralfields(eg.childpsychologyresearchmightbeofinterestnotjusttopsychologists,butalsototeachers,doctorsandparents).Yourtargetaudiencedetermineswhatstyleofwritingyoumayuse,and/orwhattheoriesandexperimentstoapply.Yourtargetaudienceshouldeasilyidentifywithwhatyouaretryingtodo(whethertheyagreewithitornot).Yourresearchshouldtryandpersuadeyourreaderstostandwithyouonyourfindings.Itshouldcontainadequateinformationwithoutbeingunnecessaryorboring.Thepurposeofresearchisnottorehash(翻新)informationthatiseasilyavailablebuttocomeupwithsomethingneworworthwhileforyouraudiencetothinkabout.2021/5/95YourRoleTheresearchis(hopefully)yourown.Youhavetodisplayyourknowledgeandpointsofviewtobetakenseriously.Firstandforemost,youmustbeextremelyfamiliarwithwhatyouaresettingouttodo(hencetheresearchproposal).Whenyouquotesourcesandreferences,usetheinformationtopropelyourpointsofviewratherthanthoseofthesources.2021/5/96OpeningStatement,ArgumentorHypothesisThisisthe"BigBang"-theonethatbeginsitall.Similartodebates,youcanuseonesentence,statementorquestionasajump-offpointtoacompletebodyofresearch.Thisopener,though,shouldnotbetoobroad.Forexample,"DrinkingTooMuchCoffeeisBadForHealth"istoogeneralised.Whatiscoveredintheterm'health'?Whatisconsidered'bad'?Isthisfromasocial,psychologicalormedicalpointofview?Doesthisstatementapplytoalltypesofcoffee(includingdecaffeinatedcoffee)?2021/5/97Methodology,MaterialsandDataThissectionshouldoutlinehowyouplantogoaboutdoingyourresearch.Forexample,tofindouthowmanypeoplepreferjoggingtowalking,wouldyouaskpeopleonthestreetdirectly,handoutquestionnaires,appealforvolunteersovertheInternet,ormakeupyourownfigures?(Thelastoptionisdefinitelynotrecommended!).IfyouaretryingtofindouthowfastbeansgerminateunderUVlight(ifatall),howwouldyougoaboutdoingit?Whataboutcontrolledexperiments/samples?2021/5/98ExpectedOutcomesSometimes,youropenermaybeanewhypothesisthatyouaretryingtoprove.Perhapsyoucouldbeworkingtowardsacertainexpectedoutcomethatyouintendtoprove.Ifyourresearchisofthisnature,youmightwishtoincludethisinyourproposal.2021/5/99Whentowritearesearchproposal?Researchproposalsareused:

whenbeginningaresearchdegree,

whenapplyingforgrantsortenders,

andwhenotherpeopleareinvolvedinformulating,supervisingorconductingtheresearch.Oncedeveloped,theresearchproposalservesasaplanforconductingtheresearch.2021/5/910PurposeofaresearchproposalResearchproposalsserveanumberofpurposes.Amongthem:Theyconvinceothersthatyourresearchisworthundertaking.Theyenableyoutodemonstrateexpertiseandcompetencyinyourparticularareaofstudy.Theymayserveasacontractbetweentheresearcherandhisfund-providers.Theyserveasaplanningtoolfortheresearcher.2021/5/911Howtopreparearesearchproposal?Normallyaresearchproposalwillincludethefollowing:AworkingtitleofthetopicareaGeneraloverviewofareaIdentificationoftherelevantliteratureKeyresearchquestionsMethodologyTimescale/researchplanningBibliographyAvoid2021/5/912AworkingtitleofthetopicareaThisshoulddomorethanconveythekeywordsassociatedwiththeproposedresearch.2021/5/913GeneraloverviewofareaThisshouldtaketheformofabriefabstractofthegeneralareaofstudyandidentifythediscipline(s)withinwhichitfalls.Youmightalsorefertothewayinwhichyourownbackgroundgivesyoucompetencesinyourchosenarea.2021/5/914IdentificationoftherelevantliteratureInthissectionyoushoulddevelopyourproposaltodemonstratethatyouareawareofthedebatesandissuesraisedinrelevantbodiesofliterature.Referencestokeyarticlesandtextsshouldbemadetoshowthatyouappreciatetheirrelevancetoyourresearcharea.Aresearchpaperisanoriginalpieceofresearchandsoyoushoulddemonstratethatyourproposedareahasnotbeenstudiedbefore.Soyouneedtoidentifyyourniche(市场定位)whichwillleadontothethesispreparation.2021/5/915KeyresearchquestionsSinceyouneedtodemonstratethatthetopiccanbecompletedwithinthenormaltimeperiodallowed,youneedtodemonstratethatitismanageable,andsofocusonkeyquestionswithinyournichearea.2021/5/916MethodologyYouneedtodemonstrateanawarenessofthemethodologicaltoolsavailabletoyouandshowsomeunderstandingofwhichwouldbesuitableforyourresearch.Itmaybethatqualitativemethods,includingtheanalysisofinterviews,isappropriate.Alternativelyyourapproachmayinvolveforecastingorstatistical,financialoreconometricmodelling.Inothercasesyoumaybecombiningmethodologies.Youneedtospecifytheapproachyoufeelwillbemostappropriate.2021/5/917Timescale/researchplanningYouneedtodemonstrateanawarenessoftheneedforplanningandthetimescaleoftheresearch.2021/5/918BibliographyYoushouldincludeashortlistofreferencestokeyarticlesandtextsincludedintheapplication.2021/5/919AvoidBroadtopicareaswhichwouldbeunmanageableasPGorPhDtopicsVaguedescriptionsofresearchareasSubjectareaswhereyourSchoolhasnoexpertise2021/5/920ElementsoftheresearchproposalTitleAbstractIntroductionLiteratureReviewMethodsResultsDiscussion2021/5/921TitleItshouldbeconciseanddescriptive.Forexample,thephrase,"Aninvestigationof..."couldbeomitted.Oftentitlesarestatedintermsofafunctionalrelationship,becausesuchtitlesclearlyindicatetheindependentanddependentvariables.However,ifpossible,thinkofaninformativebutcatchytitle.Aneffectivetitlenotonlypricksthereader'sinterest,butalsopredisposeshim/herfavourablytowardstheproposal.2021/5/922AbstractItisabriefsummaryofapproximately300words.Itshouldincludetheresearchquestion,therationale(基础理论)forthestudy,thehypothesis(ifany),themethodandthemainfindings.Descriptionsofthemethodmayincludethedesign,procedures,thesampleandanyinstrumentsthatwillbeused.2021/5/923IntroductionThemainpurposeoftheintroductionistoprovidethenecessarybackgroundorcontextforyourresearchproblem.Theintroductiontypicallybeginswithageneralstatementoftheproblemarea,withafocusonaspecificresearchproblem,tobefollowedbytherationalorjustificationfortheproposedstudy.Theintroductiongenerallycoversthefollowingelements:2021/5/924ElementsinanintroductionStatetheresearchproblem,whichisoftenreferredtoasthepurposeofthestudy.Providethecontextandsetthestageforyourresearchquestioninsuchawayastoshowitsnecessityandimportance.Presenttherationaleofyourproposedstudyandclearlyindicatewhyitisworthdoing.Brieflydescribethemajorissuesandsub-problemstobeaddressedbyyourresearch.Identifythekeyindependentanddependentvariablesofyourexperiment.Alternatively,specifythephenomenonyouwanttostudy.Stateyourhypothesisortheory,ifany.Forexploratoryorphenomenologicalresearch,youmaynothaveanyhypotheses.(Pleasedonotconfusethehypothesiswiththestatisticalnullhypothesis.)Setthedelimitationorboundariesofyourproposedresearchinordertoprovideaclearfocus.Providedefinitionsofkeyconcepts.(Thisisoptional.)2021/5/925LiteratureReviewSometimestheliteraturereviewisincorporatedintotheintroductionsection.However,mostprofessorspreferaseparatesection,whichallowsamorethoroughreviewoftheliterature.Theliteraturereviewservesseveralimportantfunctions:2021/5/926FunctionsofliteraturereviewEnsuresthatyouarenot"reinventingthewheel".Givescreditstothosewhohavelaidthegroundworkforyourresearch.Demonstratesyourknowledgeoftheresearchproblem.Demonstratesyourunderstandingofthetheoreticalandresearchissuesrelatedtoyourresearchquestion.Showsyourabilitytocriticallyevaluaterelevantliteratureinformation.Indicatesyourabilitytointegrateandsynthesizetheexistingliterature.Providesnewtheoreticalinsightsordevelopsanewmodelastheconceptualframeworkforyourresearch.Convincesyourreaderthatyourproposedresearchwillmakeasignificantandsubstantialcontributiontotheliterature(i.e.,resolvinganimportanttheoreticalissueorfillingamajorgapintheliterature).2021/5/927problemswithliteraturereviewsMoststudents'literaturereviewssufferfromthefollowingproblems:LackingorganizationandstructureLackingfocus,unityandcoherenceBeingrepetitiveandverboseFailingtociteinfluentialpapersFailingtokeepupwithrecentdevelopmentsFailingtocriticallyevaluatecitedpapersCitingirrelevantortrivialreferencesDependingtoomuchonsecondarysources2021/5/928OrganizationofliteraturereviewTherearedifferentwaystoorganizeyourliteraturereview.Makeuseofsubheadingstobringorderandcoherencetoyourreview.Forexample,havingestablishedtheimportanceofyourresearchareaanditscurrentstateofdevelopment,youmaydevoteseveralsubsectionsonrelatedissuesas:theoreticalmodels,measuringinstruments,cross-culturalandgenderdifferences,etc.Itisalsohelpfultokeepinmindthatyouaretellingastorytoanaudience.Trytotellitinastimulatingandengagingmanner.Donotborethem,becauseitmayleadtorejectionofyourworthyproposal.(Remember:Professorsandscientistsarehumanbeingstoo.)2021/5/929MethodTheMethodsectionisveryimportantbecauseittellsyourResearchCommitteehowyouplantotackleyourresearchproblem.Itwillprovideyourworkplananddescribetheactivitiesnecessaryforthecompletionofyourproject.TheguidingprincipleforwritingtheMethodsectionisthatitshouldcontainsufficientinformationforthereadertodeterminewhethermethodologyissound.Someevenarguethatagoodproposalshouldcontainsufficientdetailsforanotherqualifiedresearchertoimplementthestudy.2021/5/930QuantitativestudiesForquantitativestudies,themethodsectiontypicallyconsistsofthefollowingsections:Design-Isitaquestionnairestudyoralaboratoryexperiment?Whatkindofdesigndoyouchoose?Subjectsorparticipants-Whowilltakepartinyourstudy?Whatkindofsamplingproceduredoyouuse?Instruments-Whatkindofmeasuringinstrumentsorquestionnairesdoyouuse?Whydoyouchoosethem?Aretheyvalidandreliable?Procedure-Howdoyouplantocarryoutyourstudy?Whatactivitiesareinvolved?Howlongdoesittake?2021/5/931ResultsObviouslyyoudonothaveresultsattheproposalstage.However,youneedtohavesomeideaaboutwhatkindofdatayouwillbecollecting,andwhatstatisticalprocedureswillbeusedinordertoansweryourresearchquestionortestyouhypothesis.2021/5/932DiscussionItisimportanttoconvinceyourreaderofthepotentialimpactofyourproposedresearch.Youneedtocommunicateasenseofenthusiasmandconfidencewithoutexaggeratingthemeritsofyourproposal.Thatiswhyyoualsoneedtomentionthelimitationsandweaknessesoftheproposedresearch,whichmaybejustifiedbytimeandfinancialconstraintsaswellasbytheearlydevelopmentalstageofyourresearcharea.2021/5/933CommonMistakesinProposalWriting1.Failuretoprovidethepropercontexttoframetheresearchquestion.2.Failuretodelimittheboundaryconditionsforyourresearch.3.Failuretocitelandmarkstudies.4.Failuretoaccuratelypresentthetheoreticalandempiricalcontributionsbyotherresearchers.5.Failuretostayfocusedontheresearchquestion.6.Failuretodevelopacoherentandpersuasiveargumentfortheproposedresearch.2021/5/9347.Toomuchdetailonminorissues,butnotenoughdetailonmajorissues.8.Toomuchrambling--going"alloverthemap"withoutaclearsenseofdirection.(Thebestproposalsmoveforwardwitheaseandgracelikeaseamlessriver.)9.Toomanycitationlapsesandincorrectreferences.10.Toolongortooshort.11.FailingtofollowtheAPA(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation)style.12.Sloppingwriting.2021/5/935Feasibilityanalysis2021/5/936Budgetanalysis2021/5/937HowtowritearesearchproposalWhenyouarewritingaRP,keepinmindthatitwillenteracompetition,beingreadinlinewithquiteafewotherRPs.Youhavetocomeupwithadocumentthathasanimpactuponthereader:writeclearlyandwellstructuredsothatyourmessagegetsacrosseasily.Basically,yourRPhastoanswerthreebigquestions:whatresearchprojectwillyouundertake,whyisimportanttoknowthatthingandhowwillyouproceedtomakethatresearch.2021/5/938Inordertodrawtheresearcher'sattentionuponyourpaper,writeanintroductionwithimpact,andthatleadstotheformulationofyourhypothesis.Theresearchhypothesishastobespecific,concise(onephrase)andtoleadtotheadvancementoftheknowledgeinthefieldinsomeway.Writingthehypothesisinaconcisemannerand,first,comingupwithagoodhypothesisisadifficultmission.Thisisactuallythecoreofyourapplication:you'regoingtoauniversitytodothisverypieceofresearch.Comparedtothis,therestoftheapplicationisbackgroundscenery.Takeyourtimetothinkofit.Whenyouhaveanidea,becarefulattheformulation.Awell-writtenhypothesisissomethingofanessay'sthesis:itprovidesastatementthatcanbetested(arguesaheadoneofthepossibleanswerstoaproblem),itisanidea,aconcept,andnotamerefact,andissummedupinonephrase.Insomecases,youwillhavenoideawhatthepossibleanswertoaproblemworthbeingresearchedis,butyouwillbeabletothinkofawaytosolvethatproblem,andfindouttheanswerinthemeantime.It'sokinthiscase,toformulatearesearchquestion,ratherthanahypothesis.Letthosecasesberare,inanyway.2021/5/939Anotherpieceofadvicewhenwritingyourhypothesis,regardingthetrendyresearchfields:chancesaregreatthatthey'retrendybecausesomebodyhasalreadymadethatexcitingdiscovery,orwrotethatsplendidpaperthatawokeeverybody'sinterestinthefirstplace.Ifyou'reinoneofthesefields,trytogetafreshpointofviewuponthesubject;makenewconnections,don'tbe100%mainstream.Thiswillmaketheprojectevenmorestimulatingforthereader.Imaginethatyouarewritingaboutthetrendiestsubject,withabsolutelynochangeinthepointofview,andyouaregiventhechancetomaketheresearch.Trendscomeandgo,fast;whatarethechancesthat,infouryears'time,whenyourresearchisdoneandyouarereadytopublishyourresults,oneofthosewell-knownprofessorswhodisposeofhugeresearchgrantshasalreadysaidwhateveryouhadtosay?2021/5/940Afterstatingyourthesis,youshouldgiveashortaccountofyouranswerstothosethreequestionsmentionearlier.State,inafewphrases,whatwillbelearnedfromyourresearch,thatyourprojectwillmakeadifference,andwhyisthatimportanttobeknown.Youwillhavetoelaborateonbothoftheselaterinthepaper.2021/5/941Thenextstepinwritingyourproposalistoprovethatthatparticular