通过电子政务弥合数字鸿沟

Supply-DemandGapsinMeetingResearchNeedsinaNetworkedEnvironment:ChallengesandOpportunitiesforAcademicLibraries

StephenM.MutulaVisitingProfessor,UniversityofZululandAssociateProfessor,UniversityofBotswana

IntroductionWorldclassuniversitiesarecharacterisedby:Worldreputation(3rd

partyendorsement,worldranking)

Researchperformance(researchoutput)Prominentgraduates(celebritiesofnationalculturecommunityleadersandinternationalfigures)Internationalparticipationandvisibility(publications,exchangevisits,internationalteachers,internationalstudents,editorshipofinternationaljournals,leadershipininternationalnetworks)PresentationAgendaAim:Assessesresearchsupply-demandgapsinuniversitiesinsubSaharanAfricaandtheroleofacademiclibraries.Thepresentationusesexamplesfromglobalrankingofuniversities,institutionalrepositories,PhDoutputs,patentfilingwithWIPO,etc.SuggestionstoimprovethesituationAreprofferedFocus:subSaharanAfricaexcludingNorthAfricaandtoalesserextentSouthAfricaTraditionofNorthAfricanuniversitieslargelyinfluencedbyacademicenvironmentinEuropeandtheMiddleEastSouthAfrica-uniquepastpoliticaldispensationGlobalRankingofUniversitiesAssumption:WebhasbecomeoneofthemainsourcestoobtaininformationonacademicandscientificactivitiesRankingreflectsthecommitmenttothedisseminationofscientificknowledgeResearchSnapshotinAfricanUniversitiesRecentglobalrankingofuniversities:Africanuniversitieshardlyamongthetop500.LeaguetableisdominatedbyUniversitiesfrom(EuropeandUSdominate)2008rankings(Top500)globally:UCT-252ndpositionWits-398thpositionUniversityofCairo–Fallenofflist(from2007)UKZN-477thpositionUP-Fallenofflist(from2007)SU-Fallenofflistat654th(or566th)position(InstituteofHigherEducation,2008,China)ModelsforGlobalRankingUniversitiesTimeHigherEducationSupplement(2008):

Peerreview

40%Employerreview

10%Student/teacherratio

20%Citationindex

20%Internationalteachers

5%Internationalstudents

5%ModelsforGlobalRankingUniversitiesWebometricsRankingofWorldUniversities(2008):Websize

20%Richfiles

15%Scholar(Google)

15%Visibility(Link)

50%ModelsforGlobalRankingUniversitiesShanghaiJiaotongAcademicRankingofWorldUniversities,China(2008):AlumniasNobelLaureate

10%FacultyasNobelLaureate

20%Highly-citedresearchers

20%ArticlesinNatureandScience

20%ArticlesinSCI

20%Size

10%SummaryCriteriaforGlobalRankingofUniversitiesResearchproductivity(numberofarticlespublishedinpeerreviewedjournals)Researchimpact(numberofcitationsofagivenarticleinaspecifiedperiodoftime)Researchexcellence(thenumberofhighlycitedpapersinESI-EssentialScienceIndicatorsNumberofarticlesinhigherimpactjournals(InstituteofHigherEducation,2008,China)SummaryCriteriaforGlobalRankingofUniversitiesVisibilityoftheinstitutionsontheWebUseofICTsVolumeofpublishedmaterialonthewebInstitutionalstatisticsSizeoftheinstitutions(students,faculty,etc).Sourcesofdataforrankinginclude:websites,surveysofstudents,scholarsoremployers(InstituteofHigherEducation,2008,China)ControversyoverRankingCriteriaDebateandcontroversyragesamonguniversitiesperformingpoorlyovercriteria.Thosecriticaloftherankingarguethat:MethodologiesusedareflawedasuniversitiesarenotphysicallyvisitedNotallinformationisonwebsitesInformationusedisoutdatedLinkingemploymentratestorelevanceofcoursesisflawedUniversitiesfacedifferentchallengesanddifferentcriteriashouldbeusedNumberofstudentsdifferssodoesnumberoffaculty,UseofGlobalRankingofUniversitiesGlobalrankingofuniversities:GivesanindicationofqualityofgraduatesandresearchDeterminesproportionoffundingtouniversities(e.g.UK)UsefulasascreeningdeviceforemployersPromptsresearcherstoincreasetheirpublicationoutputinvisiblejournalsIncreasesawarenessamongacademicsonhowbesttomaketheirresearchactivitiespublicImplicationsofRankingforPoorPerformingUniversitiesPoorperforminguniversitiesinglobalranking,maysufferfrom:LoweredesteemintheeyesofstakeholderssuchaspotentialstudentsandfundingagenciesNegativeeffectonacademicexchangewithreputableuniversitiesfromotherpartsoftheworldReducedfundingfrompursestringholdersLowcompetitivenessforfacultyandstudentsinthegloballabourmarketLessattractivenessasapreferreddestinationforstudentsFactors(Internal)AffectingNegativelyPerformanceofAfricanUniversitiesinGlobalRankingsLimitedorpoorwebpresenceasmostresearchofflinePublishinginlowimpactjournalsPoorrecordkeepingsystems-lackofstatisticsLimitedpostgraduateprogrammesLowcompletionratesinpostgraduateprogrammesPoorlyequippedlibraries/laboratoriesLimitedcapacitytosuperviseresearchLimitedinvestmentinresearchPoorqualityofPhDsFactors(Internal)AffectingNegativelyPerformanceofAfricanUniversitiesinGlobalRankingsPaucityofinstitutionalrepositories:Onyancha(2008)inrecentstudyfoundthat:Africaonlyrepresents1%(13)ofglobalrepositoriesEurope48%(521)NorthAmerica31%(328)Asia10%(106)Australasia6%(66)SouthAmerica4%(41)Caribbean0%(1)CentralAmerica0%(1).

Factors(Internal)AffectingNegativelyPerformanceofAfricanUniversitiesinGlobalRankingsLowPhDOutputinAfricanUniversities1990s-2001:UniversityofGhanaLegon,15PhDs-1998-2001,alldisciplinesMakerereUniversity,43PhDs-1990-1998inallthesciencesUniversityofDaresSalaam,56PhDs,allfields,1990-1999UniversityofZimbabwe,32PhD,agriculture,artsandsocialin2001UCT,382PhDs1996-2000alldisciplinesUniversityofPretoria,1100PhDs,1991-2000.(Source:SzantonandManyika,2001)Factors(Internal)AffectingNegativelyPerformanceofAfricanUniversitiesinGlobalRankingsPaucityofResearchersinAfrica:

PascalDatabase(Mutume,2007)shows:1,000fulltimeresearchers,producinganaverageof500scientificpapersannuallyThistranslatesto35researchersperonemillioninhabitantsandabout17scientificpapersperonemillionpeoplebasedonscientificpublicationscores.SubSaharanAfricahasaboutonescientistorengineerper10,000people,comparedwith20–50inindustrialnationsFactors(Internal)AffectingNegativelyPerformanceofAfricanUniversitiesinGlobalRankings(BothaandSimelane,2008;Ballantyne,2002;etc):LocalcontentlargelyofflinePoordocumentationoflocalcontentsuchasIKResearchnotpublishedLibrariesmaintenanceoflistsofthesesanddissertationsispoorLimitedinvolvementoflibrariesinKMPoorwritingskillsamongstudentsLackofresearchexpertiseLibrarieshaveyettotransforminto‘learningorganisations’Factors(External)AffectingNegativelyPerformanceofAfricanUniversitiesinGlobalRankings1980sGlobalCrises:Rapidexpansionofhighereducation(13universitiesin1960,300universitiesin2002)withoutcorrespondingincreaseinfundingStudentnumbersrosefrom350,000in1975to1.7min1995inAfricanuniversities(WorldBank,2000).WorldBankpoliciesof1980s(SAPs)Severecutsingovernmentspending–WBexpenditureoneducationworldwidedecreasedfrom17%in1985-89to7%in1995-99(WorldBank,2000)Factors(External)AffectingNegativelyPerformanceofAfricanUniversitiesinGlobalRankings1980sGlobalCrises:Kenya:educationbudgetreducedfrom38%in1987/88to19%in1988/89(Maina,1989:110)Kenya:expenditureperstudentdecreasedfromUS$6,300in1980toUS$1,200in1995(RepublicofKenya,1993)FallingcommoditypricessharpriseincrudeoilTradebarriersDecliningGDPsPoliticalinstabilityDebtcrisisConsequencesof1980sCrises

onAfricanUniversitiesLibrariesstoppedpurchasingbooksandjournalsResearchfundingdriedupFacultiescouldnotmaintainmembershipinprofessionalassociationsorattendinternationalconferencesPhysicalfacilities(classrooms,hostels,labs,libraries,etc.)crumbledBuildingofnewstructureswasterminatedScholarshipsforfacultieseitherdeclinedorstoppedHiringofnewstaffstoppedwhilebraindrainincreasedConsequencesof1980sCrises

onAfricanUniversitiesBrainDrain:Figuresvary,butcurrentlyitisestimatedthattherearemorethan300,000(outofwhichmorethan40,000arePhDholdersinEuropeandUSalone)highlyskilledandexperiencedprofessionalsfromAfricalivingandworkinginEuropeandNorthAmericacomprisingofdoctors,lecturers,researchers,nursesandprofessionalmanagers(UNESCOConference14February2006).Consequencesof1980sCrises

onAfricanUniversitiesIn2006,145,300patentwerefiledwithTheWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization(WIPO)PatentCooperationTreaty(PCT)from136countries(WIPO,2007):USA-49,555(34.1%)Japan-26,906(18.5%)Germany-16,929(11.7%)RepublicofKorea-5,935(4.1%)China-3,910India–627Singapore–402SouthAfrica(349)aheadofBrazilandMexicoICT–AWindowofOpportunitytoRevitaliseResearchinAfricanUniversitiesDigitalscholarshipShiftfromprintmediatoInternetanddigitalmedia.Emerging“iPodgeneration”typeofstudent.Openaccess/digitalrepositoriesDigitalinformationresourcesincreasinglyrelieduponasprimaryorcomplementaryinformationsourcesofscholarship.Scientificjournalsincreasinglyproducedase-versions.Web2.0,Library2.0,Patron2.0.ICT–AWindowofOpportunitytoRevitaliseResearchinAfricanUniversitiesProvisionofservicesandaccesstomoreliterature24/7OpportunitiestoofferoutreachservicesIncreasedvisibilityofuniversitiesInter-disciplinaryresearch,collaboration&partnershipReducedduplicationofresearchIncreasedresearchoutputLibrariesabletobuydirectlyfrompublishersRoleofLibrariansinRevitalisingResearchinAfricanUniversitiesResearchers:their

actionsshouldbebasedoninformedresearchFacilitatorsandintermediaries:helppeopleuseresources,providetoolsforresearcherstoorganisetheirwork,etcKnowledgemanagers:harnessindividualandteamConsultants:helpsoftwareengineerstodevelopfriendlysystemsInstructorsandeducators:deliveringinformationliteracy&educationonacademicintegrityContentcreators:digitisegreyliterature,documentIK,providehighqualitymetadatatoserviceneedsofresearchersandnetgenerationstudentswhomaynolongercometothelibraryEntrepreneurs:adoptmarketingstrategiestodealwithrisingcostsofcontent/generatefundingthroughoutreachservicesAdvisors:advisegovernmentonnewIPandli