Social-Stratification-and-Other-Forms-of-Social-Differentiation-年龄和性别社会分层

SocialStratificationandOtherFormsofSocialDifferentiationsocialstratificationtheunequaldistributionofgoodsandservices,rightsandobligations,powerandprestigeallattributesofpositionsinsociety,notattributesofindividualsuniversalityofstratificationSTRATIFICATION&STATUSstatus-ascribed&achievedascribedstatus-socialpositionsthatpeopleholdbyvirtueofbirthachievedstatus-socialpositionsattainedasaresultofindividualactionshiftfromkinbasedsocietiestomodernsocietyinvolvesgrowthinimportanceofachievedstatusRoles,Stereotypes,StratificationRoles--tasks&activitiesthatacultureassignstopeopleStereotypes--oversimplifiedstronglyheldideasaboutthecharacteristicsofpeopleStratification--unequaldistributionofrewards(sociallyvaluedresources,power,prestige,personalfreedom)betweenpeoplereflectingtheirpositioninthesocialhierarchyStratifiedSocietystratificationmeanstherearesignificantbreaksinthedistributionofgoodsservices,rights,obligations,powerprestigeasaresultofwhichareformedcollectivitiesorgroupswecallstrata3TYPESOFSOCIETIESegalitariansocietiesranksocietiesClass/castesocietiesEgalitarianSocietiesnosocialgroupshavinggreateraccesstoeconomicresources,power,orprestigeusuallyforagersMortonFried-"thereareasmanypositionsofprestigeinanyage-sexgradeastherearepeoplecapableoffillingthem“differencesinprestigenotrelatedtoeconomicdifferences-reciprocity;hunter&ability&sharingofcatchthecultureworkstoseparatethestatusachievedfromactualpossessionofwealthRankSocietiesdonothaveunequalaccesstoeconomicresourcesortopower,buttheydocontainsocialgroupshavingunequalaccesstoprestigegenerallypracticeagriculture&herdingunequalaccesstoprestigeoftenreflectedinpositionofchieftowhichonlysomemembersofaspecifiedgroupinthesocietycansucceedpositionofchiefpartlyhereditary,treatedwithdeferenceKwakiutl&thepotlatch-thedriveforprestigeKwakiutlchiefsnevercontentwithstatus&prestige,alwaysinsecureclaimstohereditarypositionfragilemakeclaimstofamilytitles(totempoles)butotherscanclaimdescentlinestoojustifypositionaschief-thepotlatchreturnpotlatches,rivalfeastsceaselessflowofprestige&valuablesmovinginoppositedirectionsThePotlatchandChieflyRankpotlatchnottheresultofmaniacalwhimsofmegalomaniacchiefsinthequestforprestigestatusrivalrythroughcompetitivefeastsofthepotlatchassurestheproduction&redistributionofwealthamongpeopleswhohavenotfullyacquiredarulingclassVersusEgalitarianSocietiesinegalitariansocietiescompetitivedisplays&conspicuousconsumptionbyindividualsdisappearsanyonefoolishenoughtoboasthowgreathe/sheisgetsaccusedofwitchcraftreciprocitypredominates,notredistributionremember“EatingXMASintheKalahari”classsocietiesUnequalaccesstoall3advantages,economicresources,power,prestigeOpen&closedclasssystemstheextenttowhichmobilityoccursallowingpeopletopassthroughinequalitiesClosedsystemNomobilitytendtopersistacrossgenerationsOpensystemeaseofsocialmobilitypermittedcaste,slavery,andclasssystemscastesystemsclosed,hereditarysystemsofstratificationoftendictatedbyreligionhierarchicalsocialstatusisascribedatbirth,peoplelockedintotheirparentssocialpositionlegal&religioussanctions,occupation,commensalityappliedagainstpeoplewhoseektocrossthemapartheid-castelikesystem,legallymaintainedhierarchybasedonskincolor(thecolorbar)caste,slavery,andclasssystemsslavery–closedclasssystempeopletreatedaspropertythemostextreme&coerciveformoflegalizedinequalityOpenClassSystemfacilitatesmobilityindividualachievement&personalmeritdeterminingsocialrankhierarchicalsocialstatusisachievedonthebasisofpeople'seffortsascribedstatus(familybackground,ethnicity,gender,religion,skincolor)lessimportantblurredclasslines&widerangeofstatuspositionsGenderandSocialStratificationGenderandAnthropologyinterestinhierarchicalrelationsbetweenmenandwomenhasbeenafeatureofanthropologysinceitsearliestdays19thcenturyevolutionistsandtheirexplanationsfortheriseofculturepromiscuoushordegiveswaytosociallyorganizedmarriageandkinship,forexampleGenderandAnthropologyanthropologyofgenderhasbeenkeyinestablishingthatsexualinequalityisnotabiologicalfactbutinsteadandculturalandhistoricalonedevelopmentofthestudyofsex,sexualityandgenderinanthropologyAnthropologyofWomenearly1970'sattentiontothelackofwomeninstandardethnographiesAnthropologyofGenderchallengedthebasisforunderstandingsocialrolesofmaleandfemaleFeministAnthropologychallengedthebiologicalbasisofsexandsexualityandthefoundationsofanthropologyasithadbeendoneSEX,SEXUALITY,GENDERnotthesamethingallsocietiesdistinguishbetweenmalesandfemalesaveryfewsocietiesrecognizeathird,sexuallyintermediatecategorySEX(sexualdimorphism)markeddifferencesinmale&femalebiologycontrastsin:primarysexcharacteristicsgenitalia&reproductiveorganssecondarysexcharacteristicsbreasts,voice,hair,alsoaverageweight,height,&strengthSEXUALITY(reproduction)allsocietiesregulatesexualitylotsofvariationcross-culturallydegreeofrestrictivenessnotalwaysconsistentthroughlifespanadolescencevs.adulthoodNormativesexualorientationHeterosexual,homosexual,transexualSexualityinsocietieschangeovertimeGENDERGENDER-theculturalconstructionofmale&femalecharacteristicsvs.thebiologicalnatureofmen&womenSEXdifferencesarebiological-GENDERdifferencesareculturalbehavioral&attitudinaldifferencesbetweenthesexesemergefromcultureratherthanbiologyGENDERROLES,STEREOTYPES,STRATIFICATIONgenderroles-tasks&activitiesthatacultureassignstosexesgenderstereotypes-oversimplifiedstronglyheldideasaboutthecharacteristicsofmen&womengenderstratification-unequaldistributionofrewards(sociallyvaluedresources,power,prestige,personalfreedom)betweenmen&womenreflectingtheirpositioninthesocialhierarchyuniversalsversusparticularsuniversalsubordinationofwomenisoftencitedasoneofthetruecross-culturaluniversals,apan-culturalfactEngelscalleditthe“worldhistoricaldefeatofwomen”evensotheparticularsofwomen’sroles,statuses,power,andvaluediffertremendouslybycultureEXPLAININGWOMEN’SSTATUSCROSS-CULTURALLYBiologicalhypothesesaboutthecross-culturaldifferencesinmenandwomeneffectsofhavingchildrenondivisionoflaborfertilitymaintenancehypothesisdifferencesinstrengthexpendabilitytheoryofmalesassoldierssociobiologicalpremisesforcomplexgenderedbehaviorFriedlandLeacockargumentvariationamongforagersmaledominanceisbasedonexchange,publicexchangeversusthatexchangedprivatelybywomenExchangeofscarceresourcesinegalitariansocieties,genderstratification,anduniversalsubordinationofwomenDOMESTIC-PUBLICDICHOTOMY(M.Rosaldo)oppositionbetweendomestic(reproduction)&public(production)providesthebasisofaframeworknecessarytoidentifyandexploretheplaceofmale&femaleinpsycho,cultural,socialandeconomicaspectsoflifedegreetowhichthecontrastbetweenpublicdomestic(private)sphereisdrawnpromotesgenderstratification-rewards,prestige,powerdomesticsphereclearlydrawninsocietieswheredivisionoflaborencompassesmorethanage&sexdifferentiation(complexsocieties)inequalityinmaterialrewardsforlaborlessclearlydrawninsocietieswheredivisionoflaborbeyondage&sexisminimal(egalitarian)rewardsarehighlyvaluedsocialroleswithprestigeratherthanmaterialgoodsDomestic:PublicSpheresmobility&genderDomestic:publicdichotomynotonlydistinguishesactivities,butculturallyencodesspaceM.RosaldoandtheIlongotofthePhilippinespositiveculturalvalueplacedadventure,travel,knowledgeof&experiencewiththeoutsideworldIlongotmenasheadhuntersvisiteddistantplaces,amassedexperiences&returnedtoexpresstheirknowledge-receiveacclaimIlongotwomen-theseactivitiesnotavailabletothemMobility,Public:Domestic(Private),andGenderStraitificationmobilitynotjustthroughgeographicspacebutsocialspace(associationsveiling&IslamicwomenfactorywomeninMalaysiaUS-WW2&factorywomenforwareffort1960s,70s,80s-changinggendercompositionofeconomypersistenceofdualismsinideologiesofgenderaparticularviewofmenandwomenasoppositekindsofcreaturesbothbiologicallyandculturallynature/culturedomestic/publicreproduction/productionReproductionandSocialRolesroles-thoseminimalinstitutionsandmodesofactivitythatareorganizedimmediatelyaroundoneormoremothersandtheirchildrenwomeneverywherelactate&givebirthtochildrenlikelytobeassociatedwithchildrearing&responsibilitiesofthehomeProductionandSocialRolesroles-activities,institutions,andformsofassociationthatlink,rank,organize,orsubsumeparticularmother-childgroupsalongrunningcontroversyinanthropologySherryOrtner’sfamousarticle“IsFemaletoMaleasNatureistoCulture”argumentisthatacrosscultures,womenaremoreoftenassociatedwithnatureandthenaturalandarethereforedenigratedOrtner-inrealitywomenarenofurthernorclosertonaturethanmen-culturalvaluationsmakewomenappearclosertonaturethanmenThe“ThirdGender”essentialismofwesternideasofsexualdimorphism-dichotomizedintonatural&thenmoralentitiesofmale&femalethataregiventoallpersons,oneortheothercommittedwesternviewofsexandgenderasdichotomous,ascribed,unchangingothercategories-everysocietyincludingourownisatsometimeorotherfacedwithpeoplewhodonotfitintoitssex&gendercategoriesThe“ThirdGender”asignificantnumberofpeoplearebornwithgenitaliathatisneitherclearlymaleorfemaleHermaphroditespersonswhochangetheirbiologicalsexpersonswhoexhibitbehaviordeemedappropriatefortheoppositesexpersonswhotakeonothergenderrolesotherthanthoseindicatedbytheirgenitalsThirdGender:WesternBiasmultiplecultural&historicalworldsinwhichpeopleofdivergentgender&sexualdesireexistmarginsorbordersofsocietymaypassasnormaltoremainhiddenintheofficialideology&everydaycommerceofsociallifewhendiscovered-iconicmatteroutofplace-"monstersoftheculturalimagination“thirdgenderassexualdevianceacommonthemeinUSevolution&religiousdoctrineheterosexualitythehighestform,themostmoralwayoflife,itsnaturalThirdGenderCross-Culturallyvariousculturesdealswiththesepersonsdifferentlysomeculturesconceiveofmorethantwogendersbothsexandgendercanchangewithinanindividual'slifetimeprovokesustoreexamineourownassumptionsregardingourgendersystememphasizesgenderrolealternativesasadaptationstoeconomicandpoliticalconditionsratherthanas"deviant"andidiosyncraticbehaviorrigiddichotomozationofgendersisameansofperpetuatingthedominationoffemalesbymalesandpatriarchalinstitutions.BerdacheorTwoSpiritsamongplainsIndiansmenwhotakeonmanyfemalegenderroles&stereotypes,stratification,becomeanotherwifewarriorrole,stereotypeformenmancompelledbysupernaturalspiritssexual&socialfunctions(asanotherwife)conditionisnotstigmatized,rolenotreducedtosexact,notillegalorimmoral,onlyatypicalroleislegitimizedbyspiritualpowerinfluentialinowncommunitiesascurer,artist,matchmaker,companiontowarriorsXanithinOmananeffeminateman,afemininebutnotcastratedmaleLikeTwoSpiritsnotstatic,notpermanentduringaperson'slifetimeorduringthehistoryofsocietyinOman;iftheman(women)hassexparticularlywithavirginbecomesmaleagainTHEORIESOFGENDERINEQUALITYEngelstheoryoftheoriginoffemalesubordinationtiedtothemalecontrolofwealthbuilton19thcent.assumptionofcommunalsocietiesasmatrilinealmenoverthrewmatrilineality&formedpatriarchalfamilyleadingtomonogamousfamilydifferentialownershipofwealthledtoinequalitywithinthefamily&thusbetweenthesexesgenderdifferencesarosefromtechnologicaldevelopmentsthatledtochangesinrelationsofproductionLeacock-(expandsonEngels)subjugationofwomenduetobreakdownofcommunalownershipofproperty&isolationofindividualfamilyasecon.Unittransformationofrelationsofproductionwithfemalelaborcontinuingtobefordomesticunitorprivatespheremaleproductiondirectedtowardsdistributionoutsidethedomesticgroup(publicsphere)occurswithdevelopmentofprivateproperty&classsocietySackspoliticalpowerthatresultsfromtheabilitytogive&receivegoodsinexchange(redistribution)allowsforsexualstratificationinnon-classsocietiesSandayReevesfemalestatusdependentondegreetowhichmen&womenparticipateinactivitiesofreproduction,warfare,subsistenceFriedlandLeacocknotrights&controloverproductionbutrightsofdistribution&controloverchannelsofdistributioncriticalforgenderstratificationRETHINKINGSUBORDINATIONArdener-mutedmodelsthatunderliemalediscoursediversityofonelifeormanylivesgenderroles,stereotypes,stratificationchangesovertimechangeswithpositioninlifecyclestatusofmen&womeni.e.inmaledominantsocietiesdecisionmakingrolesbelongtomenbutaswomenreachmenopause;changewithmarriagestatus,virgins,wives,widows(andmen)RETHINKINGSUBORDINATIONwomen,likemen,aresocialactorswhoworkinstructuredwaystoachievedesiredendsformalauthoritystructureofasocietymaydeclarethatwomenareimpotent&irrelevantbutattentionto