领导理论与决策课件

WelcomePublicLeadershipDecisionMaking&Part1:Theessentialsofleadership

§1.ConceptsofLeadership§2.Whatdotheleadersdo?§3.leadershipandmanagement§1.ConceptsofLeadership

Organizationsare:(1)socialentitiesthat(2)aregooddirected,(3)aredesignedasdeliberatelystructuredandcoordinatedactivitysystems,and(4)arelinkedtotheexternalenvironment.What’sleadership?Leadershipisaforcethatcreatesacapacityamongagroupofpeopletodosomethingthatisdifferentorbetter.Thiscouldbereflectedinamorecreativeoutcome,orahigherlevelofperformance.Inessenceleadershipisanagencyofchangeandcouldentailinspiringotherstodomorethantheywouldotherwisehavedone,orweredoing.FactorsofleadershipTherearefourmajorfactorsinleadership:LeadershipFramework(1)

BEaprofessional.Examples:Beloyaltotheorganization,performselflessservice,takepersonalresponsibility.BEaprofessionalwhopossessgoodcharactertraits.Examples:Honesty,competence,candor,commitment,integrity,courage,straightforwardness,imagination.LeadershipFramework(2)KNOWthefourfactorsofleadership-follower,leader,communication,situation.KNOWyourself.Examples:strengthsandweaknessofyourcharacter,knowledge,andskills.KNOWhumannature.Examples:Humanneeds,emotions,andhowpeoplerespondtostress.KNOWyourjob.Examples:beproficientandbeabletotrainothersintheirtasks.KNOWyourorganization.Examples:wheretogoforhelp,itsclimateandculture,whotheunofficialleadersare.LeadershipFramework(3)DOprovidedirection.Examples:goalsetting,problemsolving,decisionmaking,planning.DOimplement.Examples:communicating,coordinating,supervising,evaluating.DOmotivate.Examples:developmoralandespritintheorganization,train,coach,counsel.PrinciplesofLeadership<Knowyourselfandseekself-improvement

<Betechnicallyproficient

<Seekresponsibilityandtakeresponsibilityforyouractions

<Makesoundandtimelydecisions

<Settheexample

<Knowyourpeopleandlookoutfortheirwell-being

<Keepyourworkersinformed

<Developasenseofresponsibilityinyourworkers

<Ensurethattasksareunderstood,supervised,andaccomplished

<Trainasateam

<Usethefullcapabilitiesofyourorganization

§2.Whatdotheleadersdo?LeadingpeopleInfluencingpeopleCommandingpeopleGuidingpeopleLeadershipisarelationship;therelationshipisoneofservicetoapurposeandservicetopeople.TheLeadershipChallenge --Kouzes&PosnerLeadership:AnArtofPossibility“Thenewleaderdependsforhis/herpowerontheabilitytomakeotherpeoplepowerful.Myjobistoenlivenorawakepossibilityinotherpeople.”

--BenjaminZanderTypesofLeadersLeaderbythepositionachievedLeaderbypersonality,charismaLeaderbymoralexampleLeaderbypowerheldIntellectualleaderLeaderbecauseofabilitytoaccomplishthings§3.leadershipandmanagementWhatdoleadersreallydo?

Kotter(1990)feltthatleadershipandmanagementaretwodistinctiveacomplementarysystems,eachhavingitsownfunctionanditsowncharacteristicactivities,butbotharenecessaryforthemanagementofcomplexorganisations.AccordingtoKotter,managementisaboutplanning,controlling,andputtingappropriatestructuresandsystemsinplace,whereasleadershiphasmoretodowithanticipatingchange,copingwithchange,andadoptingavisionarystance.CommonActivitiesPlanningOrganizingDirectingControllingPlanning

ManagerPlanningBudgetingSetstargetsEstablishesdetailedstepsAllocatesresourcesLeaderDevisesstrategySetsdirectionCreatesvisionOrganizingManagerCreatesstructureJobdescriptionsStaffingHierarchyDelegatesTrainingLeaderGetspeopleonboardforstrategyCommunicationNetworksDirectingWork

ManagerSolvesproblemsNegotiatesBringstoconsensus

LeaderEmpowerspeopleCheerleaderControllingManagerImplementscontrolsystemsPerformancemeasuresIdentifiesvariancesFixesvariancesLeaderMotivateInspireGivessenseofaccomplishmentManagersvs.LeadersManagersFocusonthingsDothingsrightPlanOrganizeDirectControlFollowstherulesLeadersFocusonpeopleDotherightthingsInspireInfluenceMotivateBuildShapeentities領導與管理之區分領導建立和改變組織的文化尋找新途徑做正確的事以激起信賴感來促成發展專注於人,以德服人作为一种艺术關注於創造未來的願景側重人,重視效能目标源自于渴望制定任務,提供人員方向感適用高阶的決策阶层管理建立和維護組織的結構依循既定途徑把事做對以控制方式來促成維護專注於制度,以力服人作為一種科學關注於達成目前的目標側重人.事.財.物,重視效率目標源自於需求設計和實行計畫,執行工作適用中階的執行階層

SubjectLeaderManagerEssenceChangeStabilityFocusLeadingpeopleManagingworkHaveFollowersSubordinatesHorizonLong-termShort-termSeeksVisionObjectivesApproachSetsdirection

PlansdetailDecisionFacilitatesMakesPowerPersonalcharismaFormalauthorityAppealtoHeartHeadEnergyPassionControlDynamicProactiveReactivePersuasionSellTellAModelofLeadershipLeadershipManagementVisionCapability

SubjectLeaderManagerStyleTransformationalTransactionalExchangeExcitementforworkMoneyforworkLikesStrivingActionWantsAchievementResultsRiskTakesMinimizesRulesBreaksMakesConflictUsesAvoidsDirectionNewroadsExistingroadsTruthSeeksEstablishesConcernWhatisrightBeingrightCreditGivesTakesBlameTakesBlames“Leadersdotherightthings,managersdothingsright.”

－－WarrenBennisTheBossandtheleaderLeadershipStylesDelegatingLowrelationship/lowtaskResponsibilityWillingemployeesParticipatingHighrelationship/lowtaskFacilitatedecisionsAblebutunwillingSellingHightask/highrelationshipExplaindecisionsWillingbutunableTellingHighTask/LowrelationshipProvideinstructionCloselysuperviseNewLeadersTakeNoteGeneralAdviceTakeadvantageofthetransitionperiodGetadviceandcounselShowempathytopredecessorLearnleadershipChallengesNeedknowledgequicklyEstablishnewrelationshipsExpectationsPersonalequilibriumNewLeaderTrapsNotlearningquicklyIsolationKnow-it-allKeepingexistingteamTakingontoomuchCapturedbywrongpeopleSuccessorsyndromePart2:ThetheoriesofleadershipTraitTheory—LeadersarebornGreatEventsTheory—CrisescreateleadersTransformationTheory—PeoplechoosetobecomeleadersLeadershipAttributesEmotionalRationalEthicalTrustConfidenceRespectCommitmentCharacterCouragePassionCommunicatorGeneralKnowledgeTechnicalSkillsExampleRiskTakerHonestyIntegrityEquitableMoralTraitTheoryLeadership

TraitsWhatisthedefinitionofaLeader?OnethatleadsorguidesOneinchargeorcommandofothersOnewhohasinfluence,especiallyofapoliticalnatureWhataretheCommonTraitsofaLeader?Canyoufindcharacteristicscommontothegreatleadersofbothpastandpresent?Doeseveryleaderhavetohavecertaintraits?Fordiscussion:Whatmightcertaintraitsbe?Isthereanytraitthatisfundamentaltoleadership?

TableActivityEachtableneedstoselectwhattheyconsiderthemostimportanttrait.Whatothertraitsareimportant?Whattraitsarenot?Canyounameananti-hero/villianthatalsohasthesetraits?CommonLeadershipTraits5majorstudiesStodgill(1948)Mann(1959)Stodgill(1974)Lord,DeVader,Alliger(1986)KirpatrickandLocke(1991)Whatdotheyhaveincommon?IntelligenceDefinition:ThecapacitytoacquireandapplyknowledgeApplication:TomakedifficultdecisionsTofindinformationTosynthasizeandinterpretdataDiscussion:Isitnecessarytobeintelligenttobeagoodleader?Self-ConfidenceDefinitionConfidenceinoneselforone’sabilitiesApplication:WillingtotackledifficultsituationsConfidentinownabilitiesDiscussion:Canself-confidencebeahinderanceincertainsituationsand/orcontexts?DeterminationDefinitionThequalityofbeingresoluteorfirminpurpose;resolutenessApplication:WillingtostandresoluteforacauseWillingtobackupowndecisionsandactionsDiscussion:Canaleaders’determinationblindhim/hertootherpossibilities?IntegrityDefinitionRigidadherencetoacodeorstandardofvalues:probity.Application:Beingabletomakethe‘right’decisionModellingethicalproprietyDiscussion:Canintegrityhinderaleaderfrommakingcertaindecisions?SociabilityDefinitionThedispositionorqualityofbeingsociable.Application:BeingabletoworkwithdifferentgroupstowardsacommongoalBeingseenasapositiveleaderfromavarietyofgroupsDiscussion:Isitpossibletobeaneffectiveleaderwithoutsocialskills?Whatdoesitmean?TraitApproach:FocusessolelyontheleaderEmphasisoncoretraitsfor‘success’OrganizationsshouldfocustheselectionprocessonthesetraitsEffectiveforindividuals:Allowsforgrowth/changereflectionContextualIssues?Butwhatofthesituation?Whatofthesubordinates?Whatoftheculminationofdifferenteventsandsituations???Strengths/WeaknessesStrengthsAppealingtothemassesValidatedbyyearsofresearchGives‘benchmarks’forsuccessWeaknessesNoconclusivelistof‘traits’Ignoresituations/contextsIgnorescontextualsituationswherecertaintraitsaremoreeffectiveConclusionTraitApproachdelineatesthemostcommontraitsfoundinsuccessfulleadersAllowsforgrowthshowspossiblestrengthsandweaknessesUsefulasa‘tool’Shouldn’tbetakensolelyasanindicatorofsuccess斯托格迪爾的六種領導特性體格：儀錶，身高，體重；社會背景智力：卓越的判斷，果斷，知識，口才好；人格：人格完整，自信，機靈；任務：高度的成就及責任感，創造力及任務取向；社會：各種活動的參與者，能與人合作。Traittheories:Isthereasetofcharacteristicsthatdetermineagoodleader?Personality?Dominanceandpersonalpresence?Charisma?Selfconfidence?Achievement?Abilitytoformulateaclearvision?Traittheories:Dosuchcharacteristicsproducegoodleaders?Isleadershipmorethanjustbringingaboutchange?Doesthisimplythatleadersarebornnotbred?Historicfindingsrevealthatleadersandfollowers

varyby

-intelligence

-dominance

-self-confidence

-levelofenergyandactivity

-task-relevantknowledgeContemporaryfindingsshowthat

-peopletendtoperceivethatsomeoneisaleaderwhenheor

sheexhibitstraitsassociatedwithintelligence,masculinity,anddominance

-peoplewanttheirleaderstobecredible

-credibleleadersarehonest,forward-looking,inspiring,and

competentLeadershipTraits:

representthepersonalcharacteristicsthatdifferentiateleadersfromfollowers.TraitTheory(continued)Genderandleadership -menandwomenwereseenasdisplayingmoretaskand

socialleadership,respectively -womenusedamoredemocraticorparticipativestylethanmen,andmenusedamoreautocraticanddirectivestylethanwomen -menandwomenwereequallyassertive -womenexecutives,whenratedbytheirpeers,managersanddirectreports,scoredhigherthantheirmalecounterpartsonavarietyofeffectivenesscriteriaDiscussion:WillwomenleadersdobetterthanmenleadersinKnowledge-basedeconomyandPost-modernity?

LeadershipTraitsIntelligenceMoreintelligentthannon-leadersScholarshipKnowledgeBeingabletogetthingsdonePhysicalDoesn’tseetobecorrelatedPersonalityVerbalfacilityHonestyInitiativeAggressiveSelf-confidentAmbitiousOriginalitySociabilityAdaptabilityBehavioralStylesTheoryBehavioural:Impliesthatleaderscanbetrained–focusesonthewayofdoingthingsStructurebasedbehaviouraltheories–focusontheleaderinstitutingstructures–taskorientatedRelationshipbasedbehaviouraltheories–focusonthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofrelationships–processorientatedOhioStateStudiesidentifiedtwocriticaldimensionsofleaderbehavior.

1.Consideration:creatingmutualrespectandtrustwithfollowers

2.InitiatingStructure:organizinganddefiningwhatgroup

membersshouldbedoingUniversityofMichiganStudiesidentifiedtwoleadershipstylesthatweresimilartotheOhioStatestudies

-onestylewasemployeecenteredandtheotherwasjobcenteredBlakeandMouton’sManagerialGridrepresentsfourleadershipstylesfoundbycrossingconcernforproductionandconcernforpeople

Researchshowsthatthereisnotonebeststyleofleadership.Theeffectivenessofaparticularleadershipstyledependsonthesituationathand.1-99-95-51-19-1高關心人低低關心生產高管理方格圖

(1)l—1型，“貧乏管理”(impoverishmanagement)：對人、對生產都很少關心，是“一無所長”、不稱職的領導，註定失敗。

(2)1—9型，“俱樂部式管理”(country—clubmanagement)：對人關心，企業內充滿友好氣氛，認為只要人們心情舒暢，生產就一定會上去。對生產控制、監督、規章制度等不重視。

(3)9—1型，“權威一服從管理”(authority—obediencemanagement)：只問生產，不關心人。用工作條件來提高生產率，而沒有充分利用人力資源因素，靠權力管理。

(4)5—5型，“組織人管理”(organizationmanmanagement)：這是一種中間式管理，對人和生產的關心程度保持適中，多數是“仁慈式、獨裁型”的領導，做不出什麼成績，但又不出大的差錯。

(5)9—9型，“協作管理”(teammanagement)：這是一種戰鬥集體管理，生產任務完成好，職工關係協調，士氣旺盛，職工利益與企業目標相結合，是團結協作的最有效的領導。SkillsandBestPractices:TipsforImprovingLeaderEffectivenessBehavior RecommendedBehaviorsListenIntenselylistentowhatothershavetosay.Determinethetruecauseofperformanceproblems.ExamineThinkthroughproblemsfromallperspectives.Donotplayfavoritesandfindsolutionsthatbenefiteveryoneinvolved.AssistHelpotherstolearnfrommistakesanderrors.DevelopExplaintherationalefordecisionsandimplementfairpoliciesandprocedures.EncourageProvideemployeeswiththeresourcesneededtodoajob.Gentlypushpeopletoadvanceintomoredemandingroles.RecognizePraisepeoplefortheirgoodwork.Focusonthepositivewheneverpossible.House’sPath-GoalTheory

EmployeeCharacteristics

-Locusofcontrol

-Taskability

-Needforachievement

-Experience

-Needforclarity

EnvironmentalFactors

-Employee’stask

-Authoritysystem

-Workgroup

LeadershipStyles

-Directive

-Supportive

-Participative

-Achievementoriented

EmployeeAttitudes

andBehavior

-Jobsatisfaction

-Acceptanceofleader

-Motivation情境思考張經理又在公司拼到十點以後了，想到昨天年輕有為的李小寶剛辭職，用什麼辦法都留不住他…這幾年來，底下的新人沒有一個做滿一年的，所以他才會留得這麼晚…想到前陣子原料缺貨，他請仲介幫忙訂貨，自己也親自向別家公司調貨，最後雖然都調到貨了，但卻得請仲介再幫忙退貨…問題是？

TransactionalversusCharismaticLeadershipTransactionalLeadership:

focusesontheinterpersonalinteractionsbetweenmanagersandemployeesTransactionalLeaders

-usecontingentrewardstomotivateemployees

-exertcorrectiveactiononlywhenemployees

failtoobtainperformancegoalsTransactionalversusCharismaticLeadership(continued)CharismaticLeadership:

emphasizessymbolicleaderbehaviorthattransformsemployeestopursueorganizationalgoalsoverself-interestsCharismaticLeaders

-usevisionaryandinspirationalmessages

-relyonnon-verbalcommunication

-appealtoideologicalvalues

-attempttointellectuallystimulateemployees

-displayconfidenceinselfandfollowers

-sethighperformanceexpectationsForclassdiscussion:

Shouldaleaderbebothtransactionalandcharismatic?Ischarismaticleadershiponlycriticalforseniorexecutivesandnotforentrylevelsupervisorsormanagers?CharismaticModelofLeadershipIndividualandOrganizationalCharacteristicsLeader

behaviorEffectson

followersand

workgroupsOutcomesTraitsLeaderestablishesavisionIncreasedintrinsicmotivation,achievementorientation,andgoalpursuitPersonalcommitmenttoleaderandvisionOrganizationalCultureCharismaticModelofLeadership(con’t)IndividualandOrganizationalCharacteristicsLeader

behaviorEffectson

followersand

workgroupsOutcomesOrganizationalCultureLeaderestablisheshighperformanceexpectationsanddisplaysconfidenceinhim/herselfandthecollectiveabilitytorealizethevisionLeadermodelsthedesiredvalues,traits,beliefs,andbehaviorsneededtorealizethevisionIncreasedidentificationwiththeleaderandthecollectiveinterestsoforganizationalmembersIncreasedcohesionamongworkgroupmembersIncreasedself-esteem,self-efficacy,andintrinsicinterestsingoalaccomplishmentIncreasedrolemodelingofcharismaticleadershipSelf-sacrificialbehaviorOrganizationalcommitmentTaskmeaningfulnessandsatisfactionIncreasedindividualgroup,andorganizationalperformanceTraitsTheLeader-MemberExchange

(LMXModel)Thismodelisbasedontheideathatoneoftwodistincttypesofleader-memberexchangerelationshipsevolve,andtheseexchangesarerelatedtoimportantworkoutcomes.

-in-groupexchange:apartnershipcharacterizedby

mutualtrust,respectandliking

-out-groupexchange:apartnershipcharacterizedby

alackofmutualtrust,respectandlikingResearchsupportsthismodelSubstitutesforLeadershipSubstitutesforleadershiprepresentsituationalvariablesthatcansubstitutefor,neutralize,orenhancetheeffectsofleadership.Researchshowsthatsubstitutesforleadershipdirectlyinfluenceemployeeattitudesandperformance.SubstitutesforLeadershipCharacteristicRelationship-OrientedorConsiderateLeaderBehaviorisUnnecessaryTask-OrientedorInitiatingStructureLeaderBehaviorisUnnecessaryOftheSubordinate1.Ability,experience,training,knowledgeX2.NeedforIndependenceXX3.“Professional”orientationXX4.IndifferencetowardorganizationalrewardsXXOftheTask5.UnambiguousandRoutineX6.MethodicallyinvariantX7.ProvidesitsownfeedbackconcerningaccomplishmentX8.Intrinsicallysatisfying.XCharacteristicRelationship-OrientedorConsiderateLeaderBehaviorisUnnecessaryTask-OrientedorInitiatingStructureLeaderBehaviorisUnnecessaryOftheOrganization9.Formalization(explicitplans,goals,andareasofresponsibility)X10.Inflexibility(rigid,unbendingrulesandprocedures)XX11.HighlyspecifiedandactiveadvisoryandstafffunctionsXX12.Closelyknit,cohesiveworkgroupsXX13.Organizationalrewardsnotwiththeleader’scontrol14.SpatialdistancebetweensuperiorandsubordinateXSubstitutesforLeadership(cont)TheBelbinTeamRoles

TheBelbinModelisarobustandhighlyeffectiveconceptonteamworkthatistheproductofmanyyearsofresearch.BritishpsychologistDrMeredithBelbinhasworkedtoachieveacoherentandaccuratesystemthatexplainsindividualbehaviouranditsinfluenceonteamsuccess.Thesebehaviouralpatternsarecalled"TeamRoles"andtheseninerolescoverthetypesofindividualbehaviouratworkinateam.Belbin’sTeamRolesAction-orientedroles:Shaper,Implementer,andCompleterFinisherPeople-orientedroles:Co-ordinator,TeamworkerandResourceInvestigatorCerebralroles:Plant,Monitor,EvaluatorandSpecialistOverall

BelbinRoleLeadingCoordinatorShaperDoingImplementerCompleter/finisherThinkingMonitor/EvaluatorPlantSpecialistSocializingResource/investigatorTeamWorker1.Plant(PL)Advancingnewideasandstrategieswithspecialattentiontomajorissuesandlookingforpossiblebreaksinapproachtotheproblemthatthegroupisconfronting.2.ResourceInvestigator(RI)Exploringandreportingonideas,developmentsandresourcesoutsidethegroup,creatingexternalcontactsthatmaybeusefultotheteamandconductingnegotiations.3.Co-ordinator(CO)Controllingthewayinwhichtheteammovesforwardtowardsthegroupobjectivesbymakingthebestuseofteamresources;recognisingwheretheteam'sstrengthsandweaknesseslieandensuringthebestuseismadeofeachmemberspotential.4.Shaper(SH)Shapingthewayinwhichtheteameffortisapplied,directingattentiongenerallytothesettingofobjectivesandprioritiesandseekingtoimposesomeshapeorpatternongroupdiscussionandontheoutcomeofgroupactivities.5.MonitorEvaluator(ME)Analysingproblems,evaluatingideasandsuggestionssothattheteamisbetterplacedtotakebalanceddecisions.6.TeamWorker(TW)Supportingmembersintheirstrengths;eg.Buildingonsuggestions,underpinningmembersintheirshortcomings,improvingcommunicationsbetweenmembersandfosteringteamspiritgenerally.7.Implementer(IMP)Turningconceptsandideasintopracticalworkingprocedures;carryingoutagreedplanssystematicallyandefficiently.8.Completer/Finisher(CF)Ensuringtheteamisprotectedasfaraspossiblefrommistakesofbothcommissionandomission;activelysearchingforaspectsofworkthatneedamorethanusualdegreeofattention;andmaintainingasenseofurgencywithintheteam.9.Specialist(SP)貝爾濱團隊角色理論.pptFeedingtechnicalinformationintothegroup.Translatingfromgeneralintotechnicalterms.Contributingaprofessionalviewpointonthesubjectunderdiscussion.

Let’sTakeaBreak!Part3:ContextualleadershipTheEnvironmentofOrganizationTheEnvironmentofLeadershipOrganizationalPolitics第一節組織的環境PerspectivesofOrganizationTheoriesDifferencesintheMultiplePerspectivesofOrganizationTheoryPerspectiveSubject/FocusMethodResultClassicalModernSymbolic-InteractivePostmodern*theeffectsoforganizationonsociety*managementoforganization*observationandhistoricalanalysis*personalreflectiononexperience*typologiesandtheoreticalframeworks*prescriptionsformanagementpractice*theorganizationthrough”objective”measures*theorganizationthrough”subjective”measures*organizationtheoryandtheorizingpractices*descriptivemeasures*correlationamongstandardizedmeasures*participantobservation*ethnographicinterviewing*deconstruction*critiqueoftheorizingpractices*comparativestudies*multivariatestatisticalanalyses*narrativetextsandorganizationalethnographies*reflexivityandreflexiveaccountsTheEnvironmentofOrganizationModernisminfluencesorganizationaloutcomesbyimposingconstraintsanddemandingadaptationuncertaintyofthedemandoftheenvironmentSymbolicastheoreticalconstructhavematerialconsequences,butareprimarilysymbolicinterpretationTheEnvironmentofOrganizationPostmodernproblematizethedistinctionboundarylessorganization,networkmodelandvirtualorganizationcritiqueofmodernism:exploitationofenvironmentandsilenceoncorporateethicsTheEnvironmentofOrganizationThreemodernistelementsofenvironmentTheinterorganizationalnetworkinteractionwiththeotherorganizationstoacquirerawmaterials,hireemployees,securecapital,obtainknowledge,andbuild,leaseorbuyfacilitiesandequipmentinteractionwiththecustomersTheEnvironmentofOrganizationTheinterorganizationalnetwork,themanager’sviewORGUnionsCustomersSuppliersPartnersRegulatoryagenciesCompetitorsSpecialinterestsTheEnvironmentofOrganizationORGABCTheinterorganizationalnetwork,thenetworkanalysisTheEnvironmentofOrganizationThegeneralenvironmenthaveaninfluenceonorganization,butitismoredifficulttodiscernTheEnvironmentofOrganizationORGNetworkLegalPhysicalEconomyTechnologySocialPoliticalCultureTheGeneralEnvironmentTheEnvironmentofOrganizationInternationalandglobalenvironmentUnitedNations,InternationalMonetaryFund,WorldTradeOrganization(WTO),GreenPeace

……TheEnvironmentofOrganization

Perlmutter’s(1969)fourtypesofinternationalizationEthnocentricforeignsubsidiarieshaveonlyalittleofautonomystrategicdecisionsaremadeindomesticheadquarterskeypositionsinheadquarterssubsidiariesaremanagedbyexpatriatesfromhomecountryTheEnvironmentofOrganizationPolycentriceachsubsidiaryasadistinctnationalentitywithsomedecision-makingautonomysubsidiariesusuallymanagedbylocalnationals,buttheyarenotpromotedtoheadquartershomecountrynationalsareseldomtransferredtoforeignsubsidiariesTheEnvironmentofOrganizationGeocentricworldwideapproachtooperationsbothheadquartersandsubsidiariesformauniquecontributionandwithitsuniquecompetencenationalityisignoredinfavourofabilityTheEnvironmentofOrganizationRegiocentricreflectsthegeographicstrategyandstructureofmultinationalutilizesawiderpoolofmanagersbutinalimitedwayexpatriatesmaymoveoutsidebutonlywithintheparticulargeographicregionregionalmanagersmaynotbepromotedtoheadquartersbuttheyenjoyadegreeofregionalautonomyindecisionmakingOrganization-EnvironmentRelationContingencytheorystableorrapidlychangingenvironmentstable:routineactivities,authority,distinctresponsibilitymechanisticorganizationrapidlychanging:flexibility,fittingintochangingworkpatternsorganicorganizationactuallyorganizationsarecombinationsfunctionalrelationtoenvironmentcontingencyOrganization-EnvironmentRelationResourcedependencetheoryenvironmentisapowerfulconstraintonorganizationalactivitymanagersnavigateintheenvironmentaldominationpower/dependencerelationsbetweenthenetworkactorspowerofenvironmentistheresultoftheneedforresourcesOrganization-EnvironmentRelationORGCapitalinputs(investors)Rawmaterialinputs(suppliers)Knowledgeandequipmentinputs(technology)Outputs(customers)Labourinputs(employees)ResourcedependenceanalysisOrganization-EnvironmentRelationPopulationecologysamestartingpointasrdt,butlooksorganizationsfromtheperspectiveoftheenvironmentthepatternsofsuccessandfailureamongalltheorganizationsthatcompetewithinagivenresourcepoolenvironmenthavethepowertoselectthe‘fittest’competitorsenvironmentisnotthewhole(asinDarwinism),butinsteadanicheniche:resourcepooluponwhic