2014年北美托福试真题解析下载十九

228201420142014TOPICTPOPlanetsinourSolarSystemTheHistoryofEarthTheEarth'scrust,itsoutermostlayer,formedabout4.44billionyearsago,roughlytheEarth'scrustcooledwithin100millionTOPICTPOPlanetsinourSolarSystemTheHistoryofEarthTheEarth'scrust,itsoutermostlayer,formedabout4.44billionyearsago,roughlyDuringtheinitialformationoftheEarth'scrust,aneventknownastheIronCatastropheoccurred,wherethedenserelementsoftheEarth'scomposition,suchasironandnickel,sanktoitscore,whilethelighterelements,likesilicon,formedacrustatthetop.gravitytoholddownanatmospherecontainingwatervapor.Muchofthisearlywatervaporwouldhavecomefromcomets.ThiseraintheEarth'shistory,extendingfromtheEarth'sbirthto3.8billionyearsago,isknownastheHadeanera,aftertheGreekHell,Hades,forthedifficultconditionsontheplanetatthetime.ScientistsbelievetheHadeanerawaslifeless.Around4.0to3.8billionyearsago,towardstheendoftheHadeanera,theplanetunderwenttheliterallyshatteredthevirginEarth'scrust,preventingthecreationofanylong-lastingcontinents.Inpractice,lookingbackbeyond3.8billionyearsagoisdifficult,astheoldestrockformationsareaboutthisage.Theonlyearthlymineralsolderthanthisareindividualrocksandcrystals,whichgivelessinformationabouttheoverallglobalstateoftheEarth'scrustatthetime.About2.7billionyearsago,photosyntheticlifeevolved.Itreleasedhugeamountsofoxygen,isolatingitfromwaterintheprocessofphotosynthesis.TheEarthbuiltupanoxygenatmosphere,andtheoxygenbegantobondwithmostoftheelementsonthesurface,creatinghugeamountsofoxides.Today,mostoftheEarth'scrustiscomposedofsiliconoxide.TOPIC有个著名的帝国破灭了，分成了东和西。然后东比较好，需要防卫的边界线不是很多，还有很多资源;85然后权臣当道，等他们成年了，也没有发言权了。然后就说很多人都是为了自己的利益来的，牺牲民众的利益，外敌就入侵了。EasternVersusWesternRomanEmpireThedisintegrationoftheRomanEmpirebeganinearnestduringthe3rdCentury.AsfrontiersalongtheRhineRiverbegantocrumble,barbariansfromtheGermanicregionsbegantocrossintoRomanterritory.Poorimperialleadership,oftenresultingincivilwarbetweencompetingwould-beemperors,contributedtothegrowingweakness.enticedbyRomancivilizationandprosperitywhilefrequentlyfleeingotherbarbariangroupsmovingintoCentralEuropefromtheeast.Bythe4thCentury,followingthereignofConstantinetheGreat,thelastemperortoruleoveraunifiedRome,thedivisionbetweeneastandwestwasEastversusWestinLatterImperialTheEasternEmpirewasvastlydifferentfromtheWest.TheEastcontainedthebyConstantineaddedtheelementofprestigeandsignifiedtheimportanceoftheEast.Dominatedphilosophiesandreligiousideals.TheChristianpopulationintheEast,forexample,wassubstantiallyhigherthanintheWest.crumbled,theCatholicChurchemergedasbothcivilandspiritualleaderundertheauspicesoflocalbishopswhoseseatscoincidedwiththeRomancivitates.AlthoughtheByzantineEmperorJustinianattemptedtoreunifytheempireinthe6thCentury,barbariangroupsliketheLombards,Allemani,Vandals,andFrankscontinuedtoseparatetheWestfromtheEast.ThisseparationresultedintheremnantsoftheWesternEmpiretransformingintoanewcivilizationindependentoftheriseoftheEasternByzantineEmpire.Religion,Law,andWesternEuropeancivilizationhasbeendefinedastheproductofRomanculture,theChristianChurch,andbarbariancultureandtraditions.IntheWest,LatinChristianitydominatedreligioustraditionwhileintheEast,Orthodoxyemergedastheprimaryreligiousfaithtradition.TheEastrefusedtoacknowledgetheRomanpopeorpontiffasthesupremeheadoftheChristianChurch,vestingauthorityinsteadinthePatriarchofConstantinoplewhowasappointedbyTheEastcontinuedtopracticeRomanlaw,codifiedinthe6thCenturybyJustinian.ThiscodewouldnotbereintroducedintheWestuntilthe11thand12Centuries.WesternlawwasanamalgamationofpaganGermaniclaw,basedontheWergeldmodel,andCanonLaw.Withaliberaldoseofsuperstition,suchastrialbywaterandcompurgation,post-RomanwesternlawlosttheRomanelementofdueprocess.EasternRomanTheEasternRomanEmpirewastheeasternpartoftheRomanEmpireaftertheoneunitedRomanEmpirebecametoobloatedtoberuledbyoneEmperor,andwasdividedintoanEasternandWesternRomanEmpirealsoencompassedtheextremelywealthyprovinces,includingmostoftheAegeansea,Anatolia,Egypt,andpartofNorthAfrica.Thoughextremelyrich,theEasternEmpirewasplaguednumberofprovinces,butwillbeonthevergeofcollapse.Heavycavalrywillbetheirgreatestasset,andvitaltothesuccessoftheEasternEmpire.TheEasternRomanEmpireliesbetweenEuropeandAsiaandconnectsOrientandOccident.DueisSassanidPersiatotheeast,theapproachingbarbarianhordesfromthewestmaybecomeaconsiderableproblemaswell.Furthermore,ifthepeopleareunhappyandrevoltaRomanshadowfaction-namelytheEasternRomanRebels-canemerge;theyareadangerousenemy,astheyhavepowerfulRomantroopsaswell.Oneoftherichestfactions,theEasternRomanEmpire'sarmyisamixtureEastern-stylecavalryandRomaninfantry(which,liketheWesterncounterpart,isinferiortothatoftheearlierperiod).TheEasternRomanEmpirehasverygoodcavalryincludingCataphracts,Clibinarii(whichareveryheavilyarmoredcavalry,somewhatsimilartoCataphracts),andDromedarii,aswellasexcellentarcherunits.ItisalsomorestableandprosperousthanitsWesterncounterpart.declinethroughoutthelateempire.TheEastwasnotsodestitute,asdeclinethroughoutthelateempire.TheEastwasnotsodestitute,asEmperorstheGreatandConstantiusIIhadinvestedheavilyintheeasternAsaresulttheEasternRomanEmpirecouldaffordlargenumbersofprofessionaloffwitharansom.WesternRomanTheWesternRomanEmpirewasthewesternpartoftheRomanEmpirewhich,later,intohalveswiththeEasternEmpiregovernedoutofByzantium(laterConstantinople)andtheofthetraditionalRomanEmpire.ThetwohalvesoftheempirecontinuedtoprosperequallyuntilthereignoftheEmperorTheodosiusI(379-395CE)wheninternalandexternalforcesexertedthemselvestobreakthetwohalvesapart.Theseforcesincluded,butwerenotlimitedto:theexcessivezealIinspreadingChristianityandstampingoutpaganpractices;corruptionoftherulingincursionsIinspreadingChristianityandstampingoutpaganpractices;corruptionoftherulingincursionsbyGermanictribes;andover-extensionofboundariesandresources.TheGothicWarof376-382CEseverelyweakenedtheWesternEmpireeventhoughthebattleswereroutinelyfoughtbywasdefeatedandhistoriansagreethatthismarksthebeginningoftheendoftheWesternRomanEmpire.AsteadydeclineinpowerandprestigefollowedthedefeatatAdrianopleandculminatedinthelastRomanEmperor,RomulusAugustus,deposedbytheGermanickingOdoaceron4476WhilethisisthetraditionallyaccepteddatefortheendoftheWesternRomanthatentitydidcontinueonundertheruleofJuliusNeposuntilhisdeathin480CE.AfterNepos'death,OdoacerannexedtheWesternEmpiretohisownlands.FollowingthefailedattemptbyTheodorictheGreatoftheOstrogothstowrestpowerfromOdoacer,thelatterconsolidatedhiskingdomandtheWesternRomanEmpirebecametheKingdomofItaly,fullyundertheAsChristianityhadbeenlegitimizedandspreadunderRomanrule,thereweremanyChristianswhorefusedtolettheRomanEmpirediesoeasily.CharlemagneoftheFrankswasproclaimedWesternRomanEmperorin800CEbyPopeLeoIIIandentrustedwiththechargeofprotectingandperpetuatingtheChristianmessage.Manytalesandpoems,includingthefamousChansondeRoland(theSongofRoland),werewrittenpraisingCharlemagneandhisknightsfortheirchivalrousadventuresdefendingChristianvalues.thepoliciesofmaintainingaChristiannationfollowingCharlemagne'sexample.TheHolyRomanEmpirecontinuedtoseeitselfinthisroleasanentitychampioningtruthuntil,throughaslowdeclineinvolvingpoliticalintrigue,almostincessantwarandconstantinternalstrife,itwasdissolvedin1806CEfollowingdefeatbyNapoleonBonaparte.ThefamousFrenchwriter,Voltaire,isquotedassayingin1756CE,"ThisagglomerationwhichwascalledandwhichstillcallsitselftheHolyRomanEmpirewasneitherholy,norRoman,noranEmpire"andhistorianssinceVoltairehaveagreed.TheHolyRomanEmpirewassoinnameonlyandafterthelastmperor,FrancisII,nameandtheterritorycameunderFrenchcontrolthroughtheConfederationoftheRhine.TOPICTheSpanishCivilTheSpanishCivilWar(1936-39),wasamilitaryrevoltagainsttheRepublicangovernmentofSpain,supportedbyconservativeelementswithinthecountry.Whenaninitialmilitarycoupfailedtowincontroloftheentirecountry,abloodycivilwarensued,foughtwithgreatferocityonbothsides.TheNationalists,astherebelswerecalled,receivedaidfromFascistItalyandNaziGermany.TheRepublicansreceivedaidfromtheSovietUnion,aswellasfromInternationalBrigades,agreatnumberofvolunteerswhocamefromotherEuropeancountriesandtheUnitedStates.ThewarwasanoutcomeofapolarizationofSpanishlifeandpoliticsthathaddevelopedoverpreviousdecades.OnonesideweremostoftheRomanCatholicChurchinSpain,importantelementsofthemilitary,mostlandowners,andmanybusinessmen.Ontheothersidewereurbanworkers,mostagriculturallaborers,andmanyoftheeducatedmiddleclasses.PoliticallytheirdifferencesoftenfoundextremeandvehementexpressioninpartiessuchasFascist-orientedFalangeandthemilitantleft-winganarchists.BetweentheseextremeswereothergroupscoveringthepoliticalspectrumfrommonarchismandconservatismthroughliberalismtoSocialism,includingasmallCommunistmovementdividedamongfollowersoftheSovietleaderJosephStalinandhisarchrivalLeonTrotsky.Assassinationsandotheractsofviolencewerenotuncommon.In1934thereweregeneralstrikesinValenciaandZaragoza,fightinginMadridandBarcelona,andabloodyrisingbyminersinAsturiasthatwassuppressedbytroopsledbyGen.FranciscoFranco.AsuccessionofgovernmentalcrisesculminatedintheelectionsofFeb.16,1936,whichbroughttopoweraPopularFrontgovernmentsupportedbymostofthepartiesoftheleftandopposedbythepartiesoftherightandwhatremainedofthecenter.Awell-plannedmilitaryuprisingbeganonJuly17,1936,ingarrisontownsthroughoutSpain.ByJuly21therebelshadachievedcontrolinSpanishMorocco,theCanaryIslands,andtheBalearicIslands(exceptMinorca)andinthepartofSpainnorthoftheGuadarramaMountainsandtheEbroRiver,exceptforAsturias,Santander,andtheBasqueprovincesalongthenorthcoastandtheregionofCataloniainthenortheast.TheRepublicanforceshadputdowntheuprisinginotherareas,exceptforsomeofthelargerAndalusiancities,includingSeville,Granada,andCórdoba.TheNationalistsandRepublicansproceededtoorganizetheirrespectiveterritoriesandtorepressoppositionorsuspectedopposition.Aminimumestimateisthatmorethan50,000personswereexecuted,murdered,orassassinatedoneachside--anindicationofthegreatstrengthofthepassionsthattheCivilWarhadunleashed.ThecaptaincyoftheNationalistswasgraduallyassumedbyGeneralFranco,leadingforceshehadbroughtfromMorocco.OnOct.1,1936,hewasnamedheadofstateandsetupagovernmentinBurgos.TheRepublicangovernmentwasheaded,beginninginSeptember1936,bytheSocialistleaderFranciscoLargoCaballero.HewasfollowedinMay1937byJuanNegrín,alsoaSocialist,whoremainedpremierthroughouttheremainderofthewarandservedaspremierinexileuntil1945.ThepresidentoftheSpanishRepublicuntilnearlytheendofthewarwasManuelAza?a,ananticlericalliberal.Eachside,seeingitselftooweaktowinaquickvictory,turnedabroadforhelp.GermanyandItalysenttroops,tanks,andplanestoaidtheNationalists.TheSovietUnioncontributedequipmentandsuppliestotheRepublicans,whoalsoreceivedhelpfromthegovernmentsside,and20,000othersservedinmedicalorauxiliaryunits.itbutwereunabletogetbeyondtheUniversityCityarea.TheycapturedtheBasquenorthernprovincesinthesummerof1937andthenAsturias,sothatbyOctobertheyheldthewholenortherncoast.Awarofattritionbegan.TheNationalistsdroveasalienteastwardthroughTeruel,reachingtheMediterraneanandsplittingtherepublicintwoinApril1938.InDecember1938theymoveduponCataloniainthenortheast,forcingtheRepublicanarmiestherenorthwardtowardFrance.ByFebruary1939,250,000Republicansoldiers,togetherwithanequalnumberofcivilians,hadThenumberofpersonskilledintheSpanishCivilWarcanbeonlyroughlyNationalistforcesputthefigureat1,000,000,includingnotonlythosekilledinbattlebutalsothevictimsofbombardment,execution,andassassination.Morerecentestimateshavebeencloserto500,000orless.Thisdoesnotincludeallthosewhodiedfrommalnutrition,starvation,andwar-engendereddisease.Thepoliticalandemotionalreverberationsofthewarfartranscendedthoseofnationalconflict,formanyinothercountriessawtheSpanishCivilWaraspartofaninternationalconflictbetween--dependingontheirpointofview--tyrannyanddemocracy,orFascismandfreedom,orCommunismandcivilization.ForGermanyandItaly,SpainwasatestinggroundfornewmethodsoftankThenumberofpersonskilledintheSpanishCivilWarcanbeonlyroughlyNationalistforcesputthefigureat1,000,000,includingnotonlythosekilledinbattlebutalsothevictimsofbombardment,execution,andassassination.Morerecentestimateshavebeencloserto500,000orless.Thisdoesnotincludeallthosewhodiedfrommalnutrition,starvation,andwar-engendereddisease.Thepoliticalandemotionalreverberationsofthewarfartranscendedthoseofnationalconflict,formanyinothercountriessawtheSpanishCivilWaraspartofaninternationalconflictbetween--dependingontheirpointofview--tyrannyanddemocracy,orFascismandfreedom,orCommunismandcivilization.ForGermanyandItaly,Spainwasatestinggroundfornewmethodsoftankandairwarfare.ForBritainandFrance,theconflictrepresentedanewthreattotheinternationalequil