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WhenImovedin,Isawthatmysmallhouse,whichrestedupontimbers,hadsoftspotsinthefloorwherefungiwereemergingthroughthecarpets.Uponinvestigating,Iwasbothfascinatedanddisturbedtofindhugewavesofbrownandwhitemyceliumcoursingthroughthefloorsandwallsofmyhouse.
Unfortunately,thespreadofwood-digestingfungisuchastheartistconkiswellknowntoprecedeorcoincidewithtermiteandcarpenterantinvasions;thefungisoftenandmoistenthewood,settingthetableforthesemunchinginsects.
AndsoIdiscoveredthattheslumpinghousewasunderattackbycarpenterants(Camponotusmodoc).
Eachday,Iawoketofindpilesofsawdust
onthefloornearthewalls;overnightmoreofmyhousehadbeenmilledintosawdustbyants.Visitorsshoweddispleasureatthesawdustrainingdownuponthem,despitemybestattemptstomakelightofthesituation.
IsearchedtheInternettofindinformationaboutfungithatnaturallyparasitizeinsects,andIbegantoreadaboutMetarhiziummolds,especiallyMetarhiziumanisopliae,whichhadbeenusedtokilltermites.
Idecidedtogiveitatryandorderedastrainfromacommercialtissue-culturelibrary.
TheEmergenceofMycopesticidesSwarmingovertheplanetarelegionsofinsectswhosediversitybogglestheimagination.Currentestimatesofinsectdiversityrangefrom4to6millionspecies(Kirby2002),whilefungihoverbetween1and2millionspecies(Rossman1994).
Pesticideswereinventedtofightdestructiveinsectsandprotectcropsandstructures.However,manyofthechemicalsusedinpesticides,especiallytheorganophosphates,harmnontargetedorganisms,pollutewater,andimpairhumanhealth.
Theneedforalternative,nontoxic
pesticidesiscritical,sincethemedicalandecologicalimpactoftoxicpesticidesposesacascadinghealthhazardandaglobalthreattoourbiosphere.
Findingareplacementforenvironmentallydangerouspesticideswillbringusonestepclosertopreservingbiodiversityandsavingtheecosystem.
Thesearchforecologicallyrationalmethodstocontrolinsectshasfocusedonbiopesticides—
nature-basedremediesthatcauseonlynegligiblecollateraldamage,ornoneatall,tootherorganisms.
Biopesticides,especiallyselectfungi,donotposeapersistentthreattotheenvironmentafteruse,incontrasttomanyconventionalchemicaltreatmentsthatcauselong-termdamage.Theinterrelationshipsbetweenfungiandinsectsarecomplexandareonlynowbeingunderstood.Practicallyallinsectsengage,consume,orsuccumbtofungi.
Weknowthatthousandsofspeciesoffungi(calledentomopathogenicfungi)attack
thousandsofinsectspecies.Thisdancebetweenpredatorandpreyhasledtotheevolutionofsurvivalstrategiesforboth,someofwhichborderonthebizarre.Byexploringtheserelationships,wemaybeabletoadaptnewtechniquesforcontrollinginsectswithoutharmingtheenvironment.
In1834,AgustinoBassinoticedthatsporesofthefungusBeauveriabassianawerecausingthediseasemuscardine,aplaguethatimperiledtheinternationalsilktrade.Heiscreditedwithconceiving“germtheory,”amajortenetofmodernmedicine,wellbeforeLouisPasteurdiscoveredtheroleofmicrobesin1858.
Sincethe1990s,severalpatentshavebeenawardedexploitingthesemoldfungi,raisingexpectationsfortreatmentsintheemergingfieldofentomopathogenicmycology.
Mostofthesemycopesticidalpatentstargetaninsectspeciesusingafungusstrain,withorwithoutaneffectivedeliverysystem.Wheninsectscomeintocontactwithsporesoftheseentomopathogenicfungi,thesporesattachtotheinsectsandgerminate,boringhyphalpegsthroughtheinsects’exoskeletonsusingchitin-dissolvingenzymes.Otherportalsofentryincludetherespiratorytract,anus,andmouth.
Onceinside,themyceliumforksandrunsthroughtheinternalorgans,interfering
withthecreature’smetabolismandcausingmalaise,necrosis,anddeathinafewdays.
Theinsects,lookingmummifiedwithfuzzymycelium,thenbecomealaunchingplatformforfurthersporulation.
OnespeciesofCordyceps(Cordycepslloydii),whenitinfectsacarpenterant,compelstheinsecttoclimbtothecanopyoftheCostaRicancloudforestwhereitresides.Onceithasascended,theantlocksitsmandibleintoaleafanddies.ACordycepsmushroomeruptsoutofitshead
Byreleasingas-yet-unidentifiedchemicalcompoundsandcompellingtheinsecttoascendtothetopoftheforestcanopy,themushroomcanreleasesporesthatflyfarandwide,ensuringwiderdistributionthanwouldbepossiblenearertheground.Manysuchfungiuseinsectsasvehiclesfordistributionand,later,theircarcassesascentersforsporeproduction.
Worldwide,termitespeciesnumberatleast2,500,ofwhichabout150speciescanattackbuildings,butwithinthose150species,onlyafewcausewidespreadeconomiclosses.
Thedamage,primarilytobuildings,causedbynativetermitesintheUnitedStatesaloneexceeds$10billionperyear,whilethedamagefromtheimportedFormosantermiteexceeds$1billionannually.
Onanindividuallevel,thethreatoflosingone’shouse—formostpeopletheirlargestsingleinvestment—candriveahomeownertospendwhateverisnecessarytopreventdamagebyinsects.
Thisdrivetoprotectone’shomehasbeenamajoreconomicstimulusforthepesticideindustry,andaglobalmarketforinsect-defensemeasuresandcurescontinuestospurtheinventionofnewpesticides.Thesetypesoftechniquessucceedtemporarilyat.Plus,chemicaltreatmentscanbetoxictohumans,otheranimals,andtheenvironment.
Theuseofentomopathogenicfungiasabiologicalweaponagainstinsectshasmanyadvantagesbutalsofacesobstacles.
Severalcompanieshaveexpendedagreatdealofmoneytodevelopsporedeliverysystems,especiallyusingtheentomopathogenicgreenmoldMetarhiziumanisopliaeandthewhitemoldBeauveriabassiana.However,sprayinganentirebuildingwithsporesisimpracticalandunlikelytoassassinatethequeenofthecolony.
Althoughcaptiveinsectsareeasilyinfectedwithsporesinthelaboratory,insectcommunitiesinnaturehavedevelopedsophisticatedstrategiesfordefendingthemselvesagainstcontamination.Ingroupsofsocialinsects,spore-carryingworkersarerefusedentrytothenest,withseveraltiersofguardspreventinganydisease-bearinginsectsfromentering.
Throughoutthelate1980sand1990s,pesticideresearcherstriedtoplacesporesin.Thiswayofkillinginsectslookedpromisingatfirst,sinceentomopathogenicsporesquicklypenetratetheexoskeletonsoftermitesorantsuponcontact.Butthecolony’saversiontopathogenicsporesandtheinsectscarryingthemstymiedcommercializationoftheseinsectcontrolstations.Althoughincidentalcontactwithfree-flyingorsoil-bornesporesmaysucceedtoinfectindividualinsects,naturalselectionhasgivenadecidedadvantagetoinsectsthatcandetectentomopathogenicsporesandavoidthem.
Afungusthatwouldalwaysalertitsdesiredtargetinsectwithsmellysporeswouldbeselectedagainstunlesstherewasanalternativestrategyfortrickingtheinsectstoengagethefungus.Isurmisedthatsincetheinsectscandetectinfectiousspores,essentially“knowing”amoldplaguewhentheysense,orpossiblysmell,one.IrealizedthatIcouldcreateatemporarysporelessstateinMetarhiziumorBeauveriathatnotonlylackstherepellentsmellbutalsoactuallycontainsanattractant.WhenIfirstobtainedculturesofthegreenmoldMetarhiziumanisopliaeformyexperimentswithcarpenterants,Iselectedwhite-wedgesectorsofmyceliumthatlackedorhaddelayedsporeformation,andImadedescendantcultures.
Aftersuccessivetransfersoftheselectedpresporulatingmycelium,itswhitishformsoondominated.Inculturingthesemoldfungi,andthroughfurthergenerationsoftransfers,Iisolatedanonsporulatingmycelialphenotype.Ipursuedthesepresporulatinggrowthformsinvitroandsoondiscoveredthatthesporelessmycelium,stilllethaltoinsects,emitsattractants.
Sinceinsectsavoidknownlethalspores,attractingthemtopresporulatinginsecticidalfungihasobviousadvantages,includingthattheinsectsthemselvescouldbecomeagentsfordispersingthisinsecticidalfungus,whichcouldla
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