南非国际事务研究所-国际社会参与非洲核市场（英）2021.9-30正式版

OccasionalPaper329September2021InternationalInvolvementintheAfricanNuclearMarketLEZANIVANDERMERWEAfricanperspectivesGlobalinsightsAbstractAfricancountrieswanttobecomemajorcompetitorsintheglobaleconomy.Socio-economicdevelopmentinevitablyleadstoanincreaseinenergydemand.SomeAfricancountriesareconsideringnuclearpowerasanalternative,cleansourceofenergy.Othersalreadyusenucleartechnologiesinmedicine,industryandagriculture.Yetothersareatvariousstagesofembarkingonestablishingorexpandingtheirnuclearprogrammes.WithAfricasupplying14%oftheworld’suraniumandwithnoforeseeableshortages,pursuingnuclearpowerisaviableoption.InternationalnuclearvendorsandvendorcountrieswillbeinvolvedinthesenuclearprogrammesowingtoalackoflocalvendorsinAfrica.Thispaperconsidersthefollowingvendorcountries:Russia,theUS,France,SouthKoreaandChina.Vendorsandhostcountrieswillfacetypicalchallengesrelatedtonuclearbuilds,suchastheexpense.However,inAfricatheseprojectswillalsofaceuniquechallengessuchascorruptionandsmallelectricalgrids.Inaddition,vendorswillbeworkinginsocio-economicandgeopoliticalcircumstancesthatarecomplicatedanduncertain.IntroductionTheAU’s55membercountrieshaveembarkeduponanambitious50-yearplan,‘Agenda2063:TheAfricaWeWant’,aimedatmakingAfricaamajorcompetitorintheglobaleconomy.AsAfricaneconomiesdevelop,sotoowilltheirenergyrequirements.Thedevelopmentofarobustenergyinfrastructureisthusanessentialpartofthisplan,whichalsoaimstoachievedevelopmentinasustainableandinclusivemanner.1

Cleanerenergyalternativesareneededtomeetthegrowingglobalelectricitydemandwhilereducingtheharmfulenvironmentaleffectsoffossilfuels.2CleanerenergyalternativesareneededtomeetthegrowingglobalelectricitydemandwhilereducingtheharmfulenvironmentaleffectsoffossilfuelsCountriesrelyondifferentprimarysourcesofenergytomakethemlessvulnerabletopoliticalandeconomicuncertainties.Mostoftheglobaloilandgasreservesareinonlyafewcountries.Politicalinstabilityinthesecountries,andonesthroughwhichsupplypipesrun,couldhaveamajorimpactonsupply.Coalsupplyislessvulnerablesinceitcomesfrom12YarikTurianskyiandJo-AnsievanWyk,“‘Atoms4Development’InAfrica–ExpertsWeighIn”,AllAfrica,December11,2020.WorldNuclearAssociation,“NuclearPowerintheWorldToday”,June2021.2OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETawidergeographicvarietyofsources.Uraniumsupplyisconsideredtohavehigherenergysecuritythanoil,gasandcoalsinceitissourcedfromanevenwidervarietyofsuppliers,bothgeographicallyandpolitically.3Table1presentsthetopfivesuppliercountriesofcoal,oil,naturalgasanduranium.TABLE1TOPGLOBALCOAL,OIL,NATURALGASANDURANIUMRESERVESFuelCountryProvenglobalreserve(%)US21.914.012.912.18.9CoalꢀaRussiaAustraliaChinaIndiaVenezuelaSaudiArabiaCanadaIran17.515.49.68.9OilꢀbIraq8.3Russia23.716.511.66.4NaturalgasꢀcUraniumꢀdIranQatarUSTurkmenistanAustraliaKazakhstanCanadaRussia4.827.514.79.27.9Namibia7.3abcUSEnergyInformationAdministration,“International”.EIA,“International”.EIA,“International”.dWNA,“SupplyofUranium”,December2020.Source:CompiledbyauthorAfricaisanimportantplayerintheglobalsupplyofuranium.Uraniumisusedfor,amongothers,powergeneration,productionofmedicalisotopes,andmarinepropulsion,andisthereforebecominganincreasinglysought-aftercommodity.Thecontinent’sfirstnuclearreactorwaslocatedinKinshasa,DemocraticRepublicofCongo(DRC),whichisalsowhere3WNA,“EnergySecurity”,April2014.3OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETtheuraniumwasminedthatwasusedtodeveloptheatomicbombthatdevastatedHiroshima.4UraniumisarelativelycommonnaturalresourceinAfrica.Therearethreeuraniumminesonthecontinentproducing14%oftheglobaluraniumsupply,5

whichisexportedtonuclearfacilities.6

Othermeansbywhichuraniumcanberecoveredarefromthetreatmentofgold(asinSouthAfrica)andotherores,asaby-productofcopperrecovery,andfromphosphatedeposits.7

TheWorldNuclearAssociation(WNA)reportsthatthereareover8milliontonnesofrecoverableuraniumintheworld,makingitmoreabundantthangoldandsilver.8

Withfurtherexplorationandperhapsimprovedrecoverytechniques,thisfigurewillonlyincrease.9

Whenconsideringtheavailableuraniumresources,itiscleartherewillbenoshortagesofuraniuminAfricaforyearstocome,allowingforthepotentialexpansionofthenuclearindustry.10

Giveneconomicconsiderationsandeaseofaccess,theuraniumreservesinAfricancountriesmakeitaviablepropositiontousenucleartechnology.PowerinAfricaiscurrentlygeneratedmostlyfromfossilfuelsandhydroandgeothermalsources.Concernsaboutthesesourcesincludelimitedfinancialandnaturalresourcesandvolatilecommodityprices.Somecountriesconsidernuclearenergyaclean,reliableandcost-effectivealternativeforpowergeneration.11AnimportantapplicationofnucleartechnologyinAfricaisthroughresearchreactorsthathavemedical,industrialandagriculturaluses,andarepotentiallyastartingpointfornuclearpowerprogrammesAnimportantapplicationofnucleartechnologyinAfricaisthroughresearchreactorsthathavemedical,industrialandagriculturaluses,andarepotentiallyastartingpointfornuclearpowerprogrammes.Theyarealsoanextremelyimportantresourcefornuclearpowerreactorsintrainingscientistsandengineers.Theirfunctionsincludeexperimentalapplicationstowardmaterialdamage,radiationshieldingandwastecontainment.Thiscanleadtoimprovementsinsafety,maintenance,operationalefficiency,andsafetyandsecurityculture.124NeilOvery,“PartOne:NuclearEnergyinAfrica”,NewFrame,November24,2020.TurianskyiandVanWyk,“‘Atoms4Development’”.56Orano,“OranoTricastin:60YearsofExpertiseinUraniumChemistryandEnrichment”;RössingUranium,“MarketingOurProduct”.WNA,“UraniumMiningOverview”,December2020.78WNA,“SupplyofUranium”.9TurianskyiandVanWyk,“‘Atoms4Development’”.101112WNA,“UraniumMiningOverview”.LauraGil,“IsAfricaReadyforNuclearEnergy?”,InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency,September3,2018.IAEA,ResearchReactorsinAfrica:ADirectory(Vienna:IAEA,2020).4OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETSinceAfricalackslocalnuclearvendors,countriesseekingtodeploynuclearprogrammeswillhavetocooperatewithinternationalvendorsandvendorcountries.TheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)definesvendorsasorganisationsthatsupplydesigns,components,facilitiesorservicestoaclient.13

Nuclearprogrammesarefacedwithsomecommonchallenges,suchasfundingforthesehugelyexpensiveprojects.14

OtheruniquechallengesthatwillbefacedbyvendorsandAfricancountriesembarkingonnuclearprogrammesarecorruption15

andsmallorunstablegrids.16SinceAfricalackslocalnuclearvendors,countriesseekingtodeploynuclearprogrammeswillhavetocooperatewithinternationalvendorsandvendorcountriesVendorsoperatinginAfricawillhavetocompeteinacomplexandchallengingarena.Ingeneralterms,whenconsideringlarge-scaleconventionalNuclearPowerPlants(NPPs),thereislittledifferencebetweenvendorsintermsofthetechnologyonoffer.17

Otherfactorswillthuscomeintoplay,includinghistoricalaffiliationsbetweenvendorcountriesandtheirAfricancounterparts,theabilitytonavigateahugevariationindomesticculturalandpoliticalconditions,andtheeconomicandpoliticalinfluencevendorcountriesholdinAfricancountries.Oneofthemostcrucialaspectswillbethefinancingoptionsvendorscanoffer.AlthoughRussiahasmadeearlyinroadsintotheAfricanmarket,18

China’seconomicmightandwillingnesstoinvestheavilyinlarge-scaleprojectswillbeachallengeforothernuclearvendors.19NuclearactivitiesinAfricaCurrently,SouthAfricahastheonlyoperationalNPPonthecontinent.Egypthasembarkedonanuclearpowerprogrammetoconstructfournuclearpowerreactors,andhasitssightssetonbecomingthecontinent’ssecondcountrywithnuclearpower.BothSouthAfricaandEgypthavecommittedtothepeacefuluseofnucleartechnologyaspartoftheirstrategy13141516171819IAEA,IAEASafetyGlossary(Vienna:IAEA,2019).Gil,“IsAfricaReady”.TransparencyInternational,CorruptionPerceptionsIndex2020(Berlin:TransparencyInternational,2021).Gil,“IsAfricaReady”.WNA,“NuclearPowerReactors”,July2021.Overy,“PartOne:NuclearEnergy”.“ChinaIsAfrica’sTopCreditor,butWillItLead[to]DebtRelief?”,Aljazeera,April13,2020.5OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETtomeetdevelopmentalgoalsonanational,continental(Agenda2063)andglobal(UNSustainableDevelopmentGoals)scale.20SouthAfricaisplanningtoexpanditspowersupplybyanadditional2500MWofnuclearpower.Thegovernmenthasimplementedplanstoachievethis,andtosteerSouthAfricatolowcarbon-emissionenergysources.DepartmentofMineralResourcesandEnergyMinisterGwedeMantashesupportsthisinitiative,whichisbackedbyscientificevidence.Asitisfacingtheendofitslifespan,itwasdecidedtoextendtheoperationallifeoftheKoebergNPPby20years,andtheNationalNuclearRegulatorisexpandingitsregulatoryframeworktosupportthelong-termoperationoftheplant.21Theproductionofradioisotopesformedicalusereliesonrelativelyfewreactorsworldwide.Asanexample,88%ofMolybdenum-9922isproducedinfourreactorslocatedintheNetherlands,Belgium,AustraliaandSouthAfrica.23Theexpansionofexistingnuclearprogrammes,ortheestablishmentofnewones,inAfricacouldprovideanopportunitytoenhancethemedicalisotopeindustryonthecontinent.WhilenuclearpowerisnotyetwidespreadinAfrica,manycountriesarealreadyinvolvedinothernuclearprogrammes.Table2showsnuclearfacilitiesandactivitiesinAfricancountries,with11researchreactorsonthecontinent,oneoperationalnuclearpowerplantinSouthAfrica,andtheonenuclearpowerplantthatisexpectedtostartconstructionsooninEgypt.MiningandremediationactivitieshavebeentakingplaceincountrieslikeNigerandGabon.TheDRCandEthiopia,amongotherslistedinTable2,havesignedcooperativeagreementswithROSATOM,theRussianstate-ownednuclearcorporation,totrainandeducatethenuclearworkforce.Africancountrieshavealsoenteredintomultipleotherinternationalagreementsinpreparationfornuclearpowerandresearchprogrammes.TABLE2TOPGLOBALCOAL,OIL,NATURALGASANDURANIUMRESERVESCountryResearchreactorfacilitiesTypeofreactorActivitiesAlgeriaNURPoolMultiplevendorcollaborationsEs-SalamHeavywaterBurundiDRCApproachedROSATOMin2021tohelpdevelopanuclearplantTRICOIITRIGA2020:signedMemorandaofUnderstanding(MoUs)withROSATOMontrainingandeducationofnuclearpersonnelofDRCmarkII2021TurianskyiandVanWyk,“‘Atoms4Development’”.“NewRules:ToKeepKoebergGoing,EskomMustConvinceRegulatorsItHasEnoughMoney”,BusinessInsiderSouthAfrica,March26,2021.NTPRadioisotopesSOCLtd,“FissionMolybdenum-99”.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentandNuclearEnergyAgency,TheSupplyofMedicalIsotopes:AnEconomicDiagnosisandPossibleSolutions

(Paris:OECD,2019).22236OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETCountryResearchreactorfacilitiesTypeofreactorActivitiesEgyptETRR-1ETRR-2TankWWRPoolEl-DabaaROSATOMNPPwillstartconstructionsoon,assitepreparationshavebeenslowedbytheCOVID-19pandemic2017:signedcontractwithRussiafortreatmentofspentnuclearfuelEthiopiaGabon––––2021:signedMoUwithROSATOMontrainingandskillsdevelopmentinnuclearenergy1960–1999:Oranoexploiteduraniumdeposits1999–present:remediationofminingsiteandcontinuingmaintenanceandenvironmentalmonitoringGhanaKenyaLibyaGHARR-1MNSRPlanstoexpandandrefurbisharadioactivewastestoragefacilityUSassistingGhanatodevelopanuclear/radiologicalemergencyresponseprogramme––2015:signedMoUwithChinatohelpeducateKenyannuclearexpertsprepareforfutureprojects2016:signedMoUwithKepcotodevelopnuclearenergyinKenyaIRT-1Pool,IRT–TNRCCriticalassemblyMoroccoNamibiaMA-R1–TRIGA–markII–OranoownstheTrekkopjeuraniumdepositinSwakopmundregion,aswellasawaterdesalinationplantNiger––Oranopreviouslyminedatthreelocations,oneuraniumminecurrentlystillinoperation,withplansforfurtherminingRemediationandenvironmentalmonitoringofclosedminestocontinueforanother20yearsNigeriaNIRR-1MNSR2017:signedagreementwithROSATOMforconstructionandoperationofNPP(convertedtolowenricheduraniumfuelin2017)PotentialsiteselectionforanNPPisunderwayRwandaSenegal–––2020:approvalforROSATOMtobuildanuclearresearchcentreandreactorplannedforcompletionby2024–2018:signedcooperativeagreementwithFrancetoestablishacentreofexcellenceinnuclearscienceandtechnologySouthAfricaSAFARI-1Tank-in-poolOnlyoperationalNPPinAfrica,requiringurgentinvestmenttosecuretheextensionoflifespan7OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETCountryResearchreactorfacilitiesTypeofreactorActivitiesSudanTunisia––––2016:signedcontractwithChinatobuildNPPInvestigatingpossibilityofusingNuScaleSMRfordesalinationprojectsUganda––2017:signedMoUwithROSATOMondevelopmentofnuclearpowerinfrastructure2018:signedMoUwithCNNCtocooperateonnuclearpowerPotentialsiteselectionfornuclearplantsisongoingZambia––––2018:signedcontractwithROSATOMforconstructionofaCentreforNuclearScienceandTechnologyZimbabwe2021:signedMoUwithROSATOMtoexplorenuclearpowerandthefeasibilityofconstructinganuclearscienceandtechnologycentreSources:InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency,ResearchReactorsinAfrica:ADirectory(Vienna:IAEA,2020);ArnaudLefevre,“TheNuclearPowerinAlgeria”,NBN,February6,2019;RayNdlovu,“ZimbabweSignsPactwithRussia’sRosatomtoTapNuclearEnergy”,Bloomberg,April14,2021;ROSATOM,“ROSATOMandtheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongoWillDevelopWorkforceCapacityandMakeEffortstoCreateaPositivePublicOpiniononNuclearEnergy”,November20,2020;WNA,“NuclearPowerinEgypt”,May2021;NuclearPowerPlantsAuthority,“HowWillYouHandleNuclearWastesinEgypt?”;ROSATOM,“ROSATOMandEthiopiaWillDevelopHumanResourcesandShapePositivePublicOpiniononNuclearEnergy”,April15,2021;Orano,interviewedbyLezanivanderMerwe,May2021;MohammedBashirAbubakar,RadioactiveWasteManagement:Nigeria’sPerspective(Abuja:NigeriaAtomicEnergyCommission);“SouthKorea,KenyatoCooperateonNuclearEnergy”,Reuters,September2,2016;“NigeriaSignsRosatomDealstoBuildNuclearPowerPlant”,Reuters,October30,2017;KateHairsine,“Russia’sNuclearPlayforPowerinAfrica”,DW,June30,2020;HubertFoy,“SenegalandFranceInkNuclearFrameworkPartnershipAgreement”,AfricanCentreforScienceandInternationalSecurity,September26,2018;YarikTurianskyietal.,NuclearPower&GovernanceFrameworks:Egypt,GhanaandSouthAfrica,Report(Johannesburg:SouthAfricanInstituteofInternationalAffairs,2021;AfricaNuclearBusinessPlatform,“TheChineseNuclearIndustryParticipationintheEmergingMarket”,July4,2016;AmalElgahwajiandSanaEdoukali,“IntroducingNuclearTechnologyforCogeneratinginLibya”(Presentation,WorkshoponSmallModularReactorSafetyandLicensing,Hammamat,December12–15,2017);JilaniSaadouni,“DesalinationOptionintheTunisiaNuclearPowerProject”(Presentation,16thINPRODialogueForumonOpportunitiesandIssuesinNon-electricApplicationsofNuclearEnergy,December12–14,2018);“Uganda:NuclearAgreementwithRosatom”,AfricanEnergyNewsletter349,June30,2017;YasuoTakeuchiandTallulahLutkin,“China’sNuclearIndustryShowsPotentialtoOverpowerRivals”,NikkeiAsia,July3,2018;ROSATOM,“RosatomandtheRepublicofZambiaSignedaGeneralContractfortheConstructionofaCentreforNuclearScienceandTechnology”,May15,2018SomeofthecountrieslistedinTable2alreadyoperateresearchreactors.Theseresearchreactorsmaybekeytoafuturenuclearpowerprogramme,asitwouldbepossibletotakeadvantageofexistingsystemsandAfrica’svasturaniumresources.Suchprojectscouldthusserveasasteppingstonetowardscommercialnuclearpower.Somecountries,suchasRwanda,areplanningtheirfirstreactorprojects,whilecountrieslikeNigeriaareplanningtoaddtotheirexistingnuclearindustry.24TheIAEAalsohastheInternetReactorLaboratory(IRL)projectfornucleareducationandtraining,ofwhichsomeAfricancountriesarealreadytakingadvantage.MoroccoreplacedFranceasthehostofIRLtransmissionsforAfricain2018.252425IAEA,ResearchReactorsinAfrica.IAEA,ResearchReactorsinAfrica.8OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETNucleardevelopmentinAfricaWhenpursuingnuclearpowerexpansionprogrammes,manyfactorscomeintoplay.ForAfricatodeploynucleartechnology,itisnecessarytopromoteastrongsafetyculture,whichshouldbefosteredinnationalregulatoryauthoritiesandgeneralpopulations.Itisessentialthateveryaspectofnucleartechnologybeusedsafelyandsecurely.26ForAfricatodeploynucleartechnology,itisnecessarytopromoteastrongsafetyculture,whichshouldbefosteredinnationalregulatoryauthoritiesandgeneralpopulationsItisalsoimportanttokeepinmindthatnuclearisnottheonlypotentialsolutiontothegrowingenergyneedsofthecontinent,especiallybecauseitissuchanexpensiveoption.Itisimportanttoensurecompetitiveinterestratestomakenuclearprojectseconomicallyviable,sinceitcantake20to25yearstopayfornuclearbuilds.However,the50-to60-yearplantlifemakestheseprojectsfeasible.27Toensurethecredibilityandeffectivenessoftheseregulatoryframeworks,collaborationbetweenAfricancountries,andwithorganisationssuchastheIAEAandAFCONE,isessentialSomeAfricancountries,includingGhana,KenyaandNigeria,arepreparingfornuclearpowerexpansionbyimplementingthenecessarylegalandregulatoryframeworks,establishingaregulator,andtrainingpersonnel.28

Theimportanceofsharinginformation,particularlybestpracticesandlessonslearned,isacknowledgedbymanyAfricanleaders.Toensurethecredibilityandeffectivenessoftheseregulatoryframeworks,collaborationbetweenAfricancountries,andwithorganisationssuchastheIAEAandtheAfricanCommissiononNuclearEnergy(AFCONE),isessential.2926272829TurianskyiandVanWyk,“Atoms4Development”.TurianskyiandVanWyk,“Atoms4Development”.TurianskyiandVanWyk,“Atoms4Development”.TurianskyiandVanWyk,“Atoms4Development”.9OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETTheIAEAisaninternationalorganisationthatprovidessupportfor,andinformationabout,thesafeandsecureuseofnucleartechnologies.Itaimstosharetechnicalexpertisewithmemberstates.Tohelpcountriesassesstheirreadinessfornucleartechnology,theIAEAsuggestsamilestoneapproach,whichisaphasedmethodthatconsidersthelegalframework,nuclearsafetyandsecurity,radiationprotection,environmentalprotection,andradioactivewastemanagement.30TheIAEAsupportsitsmemberstatesinthedevelopmentoflegalframeworksforthesafe,secureandpeacefulapplicationofnucleartechnologyandensurestheyunderstandtheimportanceofabidingbyinternationallegalinstruments.Memberstatesarealsoassistedinfulfillingtheirinternationalobligations.31AFCONE’smandateisthefulfilmentoftheprovisionsoftheAfricanNuclearWeapon-Free-ZoneTreaty

(PelindabaTreaty).ItliaiseswiththeUNandtheIAEA,aswellastheIAEA’sAfricaninitiativessuchastheAfricanRegionalCooperativeAgreementforResearch,DevelopmentandTrainingrelatedtoNuclearScienceandTechnology(AFRA)andtheForumofNuclearRegulatoryBodiesinAfrica(FNRBA).32WhileAFCONEhasextensiverolesandfunctions,itsexecutivesecretary,MessaoudBaaliouamer,hasidentifieditsmainpriorities.Thesearenuclearapplicationsinhumanhealth;radioactivewastemanagement;nuclearsafetyandmaterialaccountingandcontrol;verification,informationprocessingandmonitoringtechnologies;aidinsettinguplegalandinstitutionalframeworksfornuclearsafetyandsecurity;andcontributionstoglobalnon-proliferationanddisarmamentprogrammes.33Establishedin2009,theFNRBAcurrentlyincorporatesregulatorybodiesfrom33Africancountries.In2020itwasrestructuredandnowconsistsofsixnewthematicworkgroupsthatcoverlegislativeandregulatoryinfrastructure,radiationandwastesafety,nuclearsafetyandsecurity,emergencypreparednessandresponse,andtransport.34TheFNRBAassistsAfricancountriesinobservingindustrystandardsandbestpractices,andfocusesoncapacitybuilding.Italsosupportsknowledgesharingbetweenrelevantcompetentauthorities,forinstanceAFRAandAFCONE.35TheIAEAandMorocco’sNationalCentreforEnergyandNuclearScienceandTechnology(CNESTEN),forexample,haverecentlyexpandedtheircollaborationtoawiderrangeofnuclear-relatedtechnologies,includingenvironmentalprotectionandindustrialapplications.ThismakesCNESTENthefirstnuclearinstitutioninAfricatocollaboratewiththeIAEAinmorethanonefieldofnuclearapplication.Thecollaborationfocuseson303132333435IAEA,“MilestonesApproach”.WNA,“EmergingNuclearEnergyCountries”,March2021.Jo-AnsievanWykandYarikTurianskyi,“PeacefulUseofNuclearEnergyinAfrica”,SAIIA,August18,2020.AfricanCommissiononNuclearEnergy,“Roles&Functions”.OmarSabry,“FNRBAAimstoFurtherStrengthenNuclearSafetyandSecurityInfrastructureinAfrica”,IAEA,February26,2020.Sabry,“FNRBAAimstoFurther”.10OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETnon-destructivenucleartesting,promotionofisotopehydrologyinAfricaandtheMiddleEast,environmentalprotection,andtraining.36

KhalidElMediouri,directorgeneralofCNESTEN,haspointedouthowtheuseofnucleartechnologyinAfricahasbeenimprovedbythecollaborationbetweentheIAEAandCNESTEN.37InarecentpresentationtoAFCONE,DavidNicholls,thechairpersonoftheSouthAfricanNuclearEnergyCorporation,discussedtheideaofcreatingaPanAfricanVirtualNuclearUniversity.38

ThiswouldinitiallycreateprogrammesrelatedtotraininginnucleartechnologiesusingexistingresourcesinSouthAfricaandEgypt.Onceestablished,thisvirtualuniversitycouldbeexpandedtootherAfricancountries,perhapsundertheumbrellaofthePanAfricanUniversity

(PAU).Launchedin2011,thePAUcurrentlycomprisesfourinstitutesinAlgeria,Nigeria,KenyaandCameroon,withafifthplannedforSouthAfrica.TheseinstitutesalreadycoverarangeofdisciplinesidentifiedbytheAUCommissionascrucialtofurtherdevelopmentinAfrica.39NucleartechnologyavailabletoAfricaTherearetwomainconventionalreactortypes.ThemostcommonisthePressurisedWaterReactor(PWR),withabout300inoperationacrosstheglobe.40

ItisreasonabletoassumethatthePWRwillbethemostcommonlyproposedreactortypeinanynuclearmarket,includinginAfrica.ThesecondistheBoilingWaterReactor(BWR),whosedesigndiffersfromthatofthePWRonlyinthatthewatercirculatingthroughthecoreisatalowerpressure,causingthewatertoboilinthecore.41

ThePWRandBWRdesignsofferedbyvendorsareallsimilarinprinciple,andtheconstructionandoperatinghistoryofareactormodelwilllikelybemoreimportantinconsiderations.Thebiggestnuclearenergy-producingcountryintheworldistheUS,withaninstalledcapacityof98.2GW.NextinlineisFrancewith63.1GWandChinawith47.5GW.42

Thislevelofindustryandoperatingexperiencewilllikelyplayaroleinthedecisionsofhostcountriesastowhichvendortocooperatewith.Animportantnucleartechnologyunderconsiderationbydevelopingcountries,likethoseinAfrica,isSmallModularReactors(SMRs).Thesereactorstypicallygenerateupto300MWperunit.WhatmakesSMRtechnologysoattractiveisthatthemajorcomponentsaremanufacturedinafactorysettingandthentransportedtothesitewheretheyareassembled.Forthesamepowerinstalled,moreunitscanbebuilt,fosteringindustriallearningandareductionintheupfrontinvestmentperunit.ThislatteraspectmakesSMR36AleksandraPeeva,“MoroccanNuclearInstitute,IAEAExtendPartnershiptoHelptheSpreadofNuclearTechniquesinAfrica”,IAEA,January28,2021.3738Peeva,“MoroccanNuclearInstitute”.DavidNicholls,“PanAfricanResponsetotheContinentalConsiderationforNuclearPower”(Presentation,CapacityBuildinginNuclearScienceandTechnologyinAfrica,March31,2021).PanAfricanUniversity,“PanAfricanUniversity”.WNA,“NuclearPowerReactors”.WNA,“NuclearPowerReactors”.“TopTenNuclearEnergy-ProducingCountries”,PowerTechnology,February12,2021.3940414211OccasionalPaper329|INTERNATIONALINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFRICANNUCLEARMARKETinvestmentparticularlyattractive,consideringthemulti-billionsupfrontinvestmentneededwithconventionallarge-scalereactors.43SMRtechnologypresentscertainadvantagestodevelopingcountries.Thesimplifieddesignhasobviatedtheneedformanysafetysystemsandcomponentsfoundinlarger-scalecommercialreactors.Assuch,thefinancialburdenandproductio