a-study-on-cultural-connotation-of-english-euphemism-英语委婉语文化内涵的研究-毕业论文

AStudyonCulturalConnotationofEnglishEuphemism系别外语系专业英语学生姓名学号指导教师：指导教师职称:2013年5月25日AStudyonCulturalConnotationofEnglishEuphemismAbstract：Euphemismisacommonphenomenoninlanguage,whichisakindofspeciallanguageformcreatedbypeopleinsocialactivitiestoseektheidealcommunicationeffect.Inmanycommunicativesituations,itcandisguiseunsatisfying,disgusting,embarrassingandeventerrifyingfactsandphenomena.Atthesametime,itcanmaintainthespeaker’simageandthelistener’sself-esteem,sothatitcouldsavethetwoparties’facesandmakesurethatcommunicationgoonverywell.Therefore,euphemismhasbecomeanessentiallanguagetooltocoordinateinterpersonalrelationship,whichiscalled“thedrivingforceinthecommunication”.Asalanguagefiguresofspeech,euphemismisalanguagephenomenonaswellasasocialphenomenonandculturalphenomenon.Hence,duetothedifferentculturalbackgroundofeverynation,theusageofeuphemism’isdifferent.ThereareallkindsofeuphemisminEnglish,asalanguagephenomenonithasitsownuniqueorigin,feature,constructivemethod,socialfunctionandsoon,italsofollowacertainlawofdevelopment.EuphemismisanindispensablepartinEnglishcultureaswellasimportanttopicincross-culturalcommunication.Inthisview,beingfamiliarwithandmasteringEnglisheuphemismnotonlyhelpusknowwellthesocialpsychologyandculturalconnotationinBritainandAmericans,butalsosmoothinterpersonalrelationshipandprovokecommunicativeactivitiestoachievetheidealeffect.Thisthesisismadeupoffourparts.Thefirstchaptergivesabriefintroductionaboutthedefinition,originofEnglisheuphemismanddifferentscholars’reviewsaboutEnglisheuphemismfromoverseaanddomestic.Inthesecondchapter,anelaborateanalysisoftheformation,developmentandclassificationofEnglisheuphemism.ChapterthreeintroducestherelationshipsbetweenEnglisheuphemismandculturalconnotation,andhasadetailanalysistofunctionsofEnglisheuphemism.Finally,aconclusionisgiventosummarizetheculturalconnotationofEnglisheuphemism.Keywords:Englisheuphemism;socialfunctions;culturalconnotationAStudyonCulturalConnotationofEnglishEuphemism英语委婉语文化内涵的研究摘要：委婉语是语言中的一种普遍现象,是人们在社会交往中为谋求理想的交际效果而创造的一种特殊语言表达形式，在很多交际场合中，它能掩饰令人不快，厌恶，尴尬甚至恐惧的事实和现象，同时还能维护说话人的形象和听话人的自尊心，从而保全了交际双方的面子，使交际得以顺利进展下去。因此，委婉语成为交际中必不可少的协调人际关系的一种重要语言工具，被称为“交际中的驱动力”。委婉语作为语言的一种修辞格，即是一种语言现象，也是一种社会现象和文化现象。因此，由于每个民族不同的文化背景，委婉语的使用也有所不同，英语中存在不同种类的委婉语。作为一种语言现象，它有其独特的来源，特点，构成方法，社会功能等，并遵循一定的发展规律。英语委婉语是英语文化中不可分割的一部分，也是跨文化交际里一个重要的课题，因此，熟悉和掌握英语委婉语不仅能够帮助我们了解英美等国的社会心理和风俗文化，还对改善人际关系，促进交活动达到理想的交际效果有着举足轻重的作用。本文分为四个部分，第一章主要简述了英语委婉语的定义，起源以及古今中外学者对于英语委婉语的研究与理解，第二章详细分述了英语委婉语的形成，发展与分类，第三章作者在前文的基础上分析了英语委婉语与其文化内涵的关系，同时对英语委婉语的社会功能进行了较为详细的探析，最后一章总结了英语委婉语的文化内涵。关键词：英语委婉语；社会功能；文化内涵ContentsAbstract I1.Introduction 11.1DefinitionofEnglishEuphemism 11.2LiteratureReviewsonEnglishEuphemism 12.FormationandDevelopmentofEnglishEuphemism 32.1DevelopmentofEnglishEuphemism 32.1.1OriginofEnglishEuphemism 32.1.2DevelopmentofEnglishEuphemism 42.2ClassificationofEnglishEuphemism 52.2.1TraditionalEuphemism 52.2.2Stylisticeuphemism 63.CulturalConnotation 63.1RelationshipbetweenEnglishEuphemismandCulturalConnotation63.1.1ReligiousBeliefs 63.1.2SocialPsychology 73.1.3PoliticalLife 73.1.4BusinessActivity 73.2FunctionsofEnglishEuphemism 83.2.1SubstitutionforTaboo 83.2.2Showingpoliteness 83.2.3Dissimulation 94.Conclusion 10References11Acknowledgments…………………...12AStudyonCulturalConnotationofEnglishEuphemism1.Introduction1.1DefinitionofEnglishEuphemismEuphemismisoriginatedfromaGreekwordinwhichitsprefix“eu”means“good,well”andtheroot“pheme”means“speechorsaying”.Thatistosay,theliteralmeaningofeuphemismistospeakwithsomegoodwords.Infact,Englisheuphemismhasexperiencedalonghistory,andwecantracebackitsorigintotheancienttimes,theearlyperiodofhumancivilization.In1066,theNormanConquest,Anglo-Saxonsreplacedthereligioustabooswitheuphemisticexpressions.Whenitcametoeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,Englisheuphemismbecamemoreandmorepopularandwidelyusedaroundtheworld.Intwentiethcentury,withtherapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,theeuphemismhadinvolvedeveryfieldsintheworld,alotofneweuphemismssprungup.Nowadays,euphemismtendstobemature,itisnotonlyusedasonerhetoricalmeans,butalsoonestrategywhichcannotbeignoredinourdailylife.1.2LiteratureReviewsonEnglishEuphemismTheword“euphemism”isfirstrecordedinThomasBlount’sGlossographia(1656)whereitwasdefinedas“agoodorfavorableinterpretionofabadword”.TheAmericanlinguistMenchen(1936)writesabookTheAmericanLanguage,whichanalyzeshundredsofeuphemismscameintobeingandbecamepopularwhichprovidesafoundationforfurtherstudiesofeuphemism.Inthe7thEditionoftheConciseOxfordDictionary(1982),Englisheuphemismisdescribedas“substitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshofdirectone”.AccordingtoAllanandBurridge,intheirbookentitledEuphemismandDysphemism,“Aeuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferredexpression,inordertoavoidpossiblelossofface:eitherone’sownface,orthroughgivingoffense,thatoftheaudience,orofsomethirdparty”.BritishlinguistRawsonHugh(1981)findsoutthattheextensivediscussionofdefinition,classification,featuresanddomainsofeuphemismshowtheinvaluableacademicimportanceofeuphemisminthedictionaryoneuphemismcalledADictionaryofEuphemismsandOtherDouble-talk.InDictionaryofLanguageandLinguistics,euphemismisdefinedas“Akindofexpressingmethodwhichaimsatnotmakingpeoplefeelembarrassedbyusingsomewordswithvagueandambiguousmeaninginsteadofthosewhichmaymakepeopleunpleasantandnotrespected”.Euphemismiscloselyrelatedtotaboohasdrawngreatattentionfromtheearlytime.Lewis,J(1985).inhisFaireofSpeech:theUseofEuphemism,acollectionofmanypiecesofessayseachconcerningaspecificdomain,tellsushowtouseeuphemismtospeakmorepolitelyandproperly.In2000,Fasold.RwroteabookTheSociolinguisticsofLanguage,anentirechapterofwhichcoversthestudyandanalysisofeuphemismbyfocusingonnotonlythehistoricalandsocialbackgroundofeuphemism,butalsothenatureofthissocialphenomenon.InChina,thestudyofeuphemismbeganlaterthanthewestern.ChinesescholarChenWangdao(1962)wroteabookTheDevelopmentofEuphemism,whichisoneoftheearliestbooksonhissubjectinwhicheuphemismisclearlydefinedandstudiedfromarhetoricperspective.What’smore,hepointedthateuphemismisfoundnotonlyinlexicalwordsbutalsoinsentencesorevendiscourse.FanJiancai(1996)givesadetaileddescriptionofeuphemisminhisbookAppreciationandAnalysisofEnglishRhetoric.Bythevividexamples,FanJiancaidiscussestheconstructingcauses,characteristicsandconstructingmethodsofeuphemism.Hearguesthat“BigHarry”isusedtoindicatethedrug“heroin”,“sunset”or“Goldenage”isusedasametaphorof“oldage”,and“MissEmma”isusedtoreferto“morphine”.AccordingtoGuoXiumei(1985)“Euphemismisthesubstitutionofpresumablyinoffensivewordforonethatmightgiveoffence,euphemismisasoften,bland,neutralexpressionsusedinsteadofonethatmightsuggestsomethingunpleasant”.Infact,itisthelinguistZhangZhigong(1982)thatbroughttheresearchofeuphemismintothescopeoflexicology.In1970s,westerntheoriesofsocio-linguisticswereintroducedintoChinaandmanyscholarsbegantoconductresearchonthesocialfunctionsofEnglisheuphemism.ChenYuan(1983)oneofthemostoutstandingscholars,devotesaspecialchaptertothestudyandanalysisofeuphemisminSociolinguistics,providingnotonlywiththehistoricalandsocialbackgroundofeuphemism,butalsowiththenatureofthissocialphenomenon.LiuChunbao(1993)compiledADictionaryofEnglishEuphemismwhichisanoverallcollectionofEnglisheuphemismsinmanydomains.Itdistinguishestheoriginalmeaningsfromtheeuphemisticmeaningsofthewords,itisausefultoolforChineselearnerstomasterEnglisheuphemism.ItspublicationindicatestheexplicitnessofthestudyofEnglisheuphemismbyChinesescholars.Fromtheabovementioned,wecansayuntilnow,euphemismhasbeenstillstudiedbyforeignandChinesescholars,andwebelievethatthistopicwillgoonwiththedevelopmentofourhumanlanguage.2.FormationandDevelopmentofEnglishEuphemism2.1DevelopmentofEnglishEuphemism2.1.1OriginofEnglishEuphemismTheearliestEnglisheuphemismscamefrom“taboo”.Itindicatesevasivelanguageoraction.TheemergenceofEnglisheuphemismistomeettheneedofavoidingtaboos.Inhumanprimitivesociety,peoplecan’texplainsomethingssuchasailmentorsomesupernaturalphenomena.“Peoplehaveconfusionbetweenthenameofthethingsandthingsthemselves.Thenameisviewedasanextensionofthings.Justastheidiomsays‘Speakofdevilandheappears’.Naturallythewordsorphrasesrelatedtothetaboos.Intheancienttimes,peoplehadablindfaithinghostsandGodswhichtheyscaredandrespected.Theywhisperedandevenfearedthem,sotheydidnotdaretocallouttheirnamesdirectly.TheythinkitprofanestonameGod.Thereforethenamesofgodsbecometheearliesttaboos.Tospeaknameofgodsevokedthedivinitywhosepowerthenhadtobeconfronted.Sotheusualwaytoavoidistoemployeuphemisms.Therefore,forneedofthereligious,alotofeuphemismsaboutreligionsprungup.Forexample,inordernottodesecrateGod,peopleinEnglish-speakingcountriesalwaysusesomeothernamesforGodinsteadofcallingdirectly,suchas“Adonai,theAlmighty,Caesar’sCruth,theCreator,God,Gad,Land,Lawks,Lawd.”Theoppositesideofgodisdevil,whichpeopleisafraid.Whenpeoplerefertothem,theytendtousesomeeuphemismstoreplace:theBigD,theEvilone,theBlackone,theGoodman,Jesse,Oldboy,Ourfather,Lordoflords,Kingofkings,theLightoftheworld,etc.Fromtheabovementioned,wecanfindthatreligionbringsmanyeuphemistictermsinthereligiousmatter,especiallythenamingandaddressingofGodtothelanguage.2.1.2DevelopmentofEnglishEuphemismIntheearlyancienttimes,euphemismrelatedtothereligious.IntheAncientGreekandRoman,thenamesofGodwereconsideredtheembodimentofGod,oncesomeonementionedthenames,hisbehaviorwouldprofaneGod,sopeopletendtocallGodbythemeansofeuphemism.Ontheotherhand,therewasabeliefamongthecitizens,thatwasthemorenamesofGodtheyknew,thebiggerpossibilitywhichtheydefeatGod,underthatkindofbackground,alotofeuphemismscameout.Withthedevelopmentofoursociety,euphemisticscopeextendedfromreligioustootherfields.In1066,theNormansconqueredEngland,manyeuphemismsemergedinEnglish,duringthatperiod,themainreasontobringupeuphemismisthatthelanguageusedbytheconqueredisoftendisparaged,andisthoughtasgrosslanguage.Theupperclasssurelydon’twanttolowertheirstatustousesuchwords.Inordertoavoidusingsuchgrosswords,theytendtousesome“magnificentwords”,whichoriginatedfromLatin,andtheseupperwordsweremixedintoEnglishgradually.The18thcenturyisalsoaimportantperiodforthedevelopmentofEnglisheuphemism,fortheEnglisheuphemismhadgotitsflourit.BritainwasexperiencingtheGreatBritain,thescopeofeuphemismcametopolitics,economy,cultureandevenmilitary.Theupperclassdeliberatelyusedtheirclearwordstoshowtheirideas,andgotthebenefitswhattheywanted.Atthesametime,thelowerclasslivedinthelowestlevelofEnglishsociety,theydon’tcareanythingexceptthatwhattheyateeveryday,howmuchmoneytheycouldgetoneday,theirwordsaresimpleandliteral.Soonthatcondition,themiddleclassbecamethemainstreamtoevoketheformationanddevelopmentofeuphemism.Inordertoimprovetheirsocialstatus,anddistinguishthelowerclass,theychosetheeuphemisticwordstobeautifytheirthoughtsandbehaviors.AttheEconomicDepression,everythingbegantosprungupafterthewar,thesocietywasinthestateofstabilityandprosperity,peopletriedtoadoptsomebeautifullanguagetogetridofthehazeoftheEconomicDepression,andmodifytheirnewlife,theneuphemismbecamemoreandmorepopular.Untilnowadays,manywordsnotjusthavetheirliteralmeanings,inthespecialsituation,theycanexpressthesurprisingmeaning.Sowhenyoudon’tgettheeuphemism’struemeaning,youhadbetterlisten,orjustsay“I’msosorry,Idon’tknow”,otherwiseyouwillmakeabigmistake.Youknow,nooneiswillingtobelaughed.Let’shaveasample,theword“Gay”primarilyusedasasynonymfor“happy”or“cheerful”,butnowithasbecomeapropertyofhomosexualcommunity.Then“agayparty”isnolongertodescribeahappyandexcitingparty,infactitmeansaplaceforhomosexual,sowhenyousay“Weareyoungandgay”inthestreet,youmaygetsomeconfusionandstrangenotice.2.2ClassificationofEnglishEuphemismTheemergenceofeuphemismisnotonlyonekindoflanguagerhetoricalformat,butonewhichpeopleuseittoachieveanidealcommunication.Fromanotherangleofview,euphemismdoespushourhumancivilizationtoahigherlevel.Accordingtotheneedtoexpressthingsisatabooorpraise,euphemismcanbedividedintotraditionaleuphemismandstylisticeuphemism.2.2.1TraditionalEuphemismThetraditionaleuphemismisalsocallednegativeeuphemism,whichcloselyrelatedtothetaboo.Itdirectlyexpressesthesamething,butoppositeeachother.Suchas“Birth,Aging,IllnessandDeath”whichcan’tbespokeninthepublic,iftheyarenotmodifiedenoughintheprocessofaconversation,peoplemaybedisgustedwiththisstraightbehavior.Onthecontrary,theindirecteuphemismcanmakethesamethingexquisite.Thereisnodoubtthatmostofpeoplewouldshowtheirfavourtothelatter.Takingthe“Die”foranexample,wehavemanydifferentexpressions:“expire,passaway,paythedebtofnature,closeone’sday,breatheone’slast,gowest,giveuptheghost,kickthebucket”,etc.Then“bathrooms”wealsochosedifferentparlancesindifferentoccasions,hereare“becaughtshortto,callofnature,doone’sduty,gosomewhereto,gotothebathroom,toseeJohn”,etc.2.2.2StylisticeuphemismThestylisticeuphemismusuallycalledpositiveeuphemism,thatispraiselanguage,compliments.Duringtheperiodofinterpersonalcommunication,sometimesthemagnifiedcomplimentsareneededtoshowpoliteoravoidsomeunhappythings.Asweknow,Everyonewantstobebeautiful,sothe“slickandfairskin”isagoodchoicetodescribealady’sbeauty.while“ablackshin”willdiscountthebeauty.Theoriginalmeaningof“ravenbeauty”isablackbeauty,but“aravingbeauty”meansapeerlessbeauty.So“aravenbeauty”literallymeanstheblackbeautifullady,theblackpearl.Collarisaverycommonpartofourclothes.Onthebaseofdifferentdivisionsofjobinthecolorofthedress,modernsocietyappears“bluecollar”whichmeansmanualworker,“whitecollar”meansmentalworker,“greycollar”referstotheworkersoftherepairandmaintenanceindustry.Theclasswhoisprofessionaleliteupperthanwhitecollariscalled“goldcollar”,and“pinkcollar”.3.CulturalConnotation3.1RelationshipbetweenEnglishEuphemismandCulturalConnotation3.1.1ReligiousBeliefsEuphemismhasalonghistory,intheearlyhumancivilization,thelocalreligiousbegantodisablesomespecialwords.ForGod,peoplekeptarespectfuldistance,andtheynevershowedtheirblasphemy.InChristiancountries,casuallymentiontheGod’snameisnotallowed,what’smore,theycan’tswearonthebehalfofGod,otherwisetheyareguilty.OneofTheTenComandementsinJudaismandChristian,isnottomisusethenameofGod.Whilewhenpeopleareswearing,theytendtoinviteGodtobetheirwitnessinordertoexpresstheswearisseriousandsincere.Soinsuchacontradictorysituation,euphemismformed,wecanseemanyeuphemismshaveastrongreligiouscolor.3.1.2SocialPsychologyIfthelanguageisareflectionofsociallife,thentheeuphemismisamirrorofsocialpsychology.Differenteuphemismsreflectdifferentsocialpsychology.“Taboo”isthemainmentalfoundation.Recentyears,thewesternoftentakethe“socialdisease”for“AIDS”.Todayobesityalsohasbecomeasufferingtomodernwesterncivilization,peoplecare“fat”sothattheyliterallycallthefat“weight-watcher”.Diseaseanddeathusuallymakepeoplefrightened,weknowcancerisstillincurable,peopleareveryscaredwhentheygetonecancer,theyevenusethecapitalletter“C”totaketheplaceofcancer.Soitiswithdeath,peopletrytoadoptallkindsofeuphemism,forexample:beasleepinthearmsofGod,beatrest,behomeandfree,gotoheaven,gotomeetone’smaker,leavethisworld,restinpeace.3.1.3PoliticalLifeEnglisheuphemismhasacloserelationshipwithpoliticallife,euphemisminpoliticallifeistoconcealandprettifythetrueintention,thiskindofeuphemismisfraudulence,mostpoliticiansloveit.Thuswesternpoliticalisaperfectplacetogivebirthtoeuphemism.Thewar,willcreatehugedestroyandmanydeathsinevitably.Sobeforeawarbreaks,everypreparationisasecret,thelanguageofeuphemismisagreatchoice,“theworkerstrike”usuallybecomes“industrialdispute”,“evidentaggression”wouldbecalled“policeaction”or“preventivewar”.3.1.4BusinessActivityEuphemismpermeateinthebusinessactivitiesaswell,merchantsattractbusinessbyusingeuphemism,“pawn-shop”become“loanoffice”For“cheap”,thebuyerwouldhavethisimpression:theproductisoutofdateanditsqualityisnotgood,so“economical,budget,low-coat”arebetterthanit.Ontheotherhand,takethedignityofcustomerintoconsideration,airplanecompanymakesomechangesontheclassofenginerooms.“FirstClass”changesinto“DeluxeorPremiumClass”,“SecondClass”is“FirstClass”,“ThirdClass”is“BusinessClassorEconomicClass,evenTouristClass”.Inaword,languageisthecarrierofculture,anditisalsoamirrorthatreflectsthecultureofanation.Euphemismisapartoflanguage,soitisalsoamirrorthatreflectsethics,folkcustom,politics,socialpsychologyandotherculturalaspects.Euphemismmustexisttogetherwithculture;therefore,euphemismbecomesrichinculturalconnotation.3.2FunctionsofEnglishEuphemismEnglisheuphemismisaneffectivelanguageexpressionwhichiscreatedwhenpeoplewanttoachievetheexpectingresultsintheinterpersonalcommunication.Euphemismiswidelyappliedtoeverysocialclass,andeverysocialfields.Itnotonlymeetstheneedofpeopletocommunicate,butalsoplaysanimportantroleincoordinatinginterpersonalrelationshipwithsocialrelationshipinthelanguagecommunication.ThefunctionsofEnglisheuphemismgivespeopleanabilitytoeasilyexpresstheirideas,andmakesthecommunicationgooncheerfully.Inmythesis,IwillgiveananalysisaboutthefunctionsofEnglisheuphemism.3.2.1SubstitutionforTabooTabooisthelanguagewhichcan’tspeakordoesn’twanttobespokenbymostpeople.Tabooisanordinaryphenomenoninourreality,sometimeswecan’tsaytaboo,butwehadtoexpressourideas,sopeopledecidedtousetheeuphemismtotaketheplaceofthetaboo.Whenwearetalkingaboutone’sappearance,althoughsheorheisordinary,evennotgood-looking.Theword“ugly”isratherimpoliteandrude,sowecansay“ordinaryorplain”.Anothersample,ifthe“fat”canbereplacedby“stout,heavyset,plumy”,Ithinkthecommunicationmaybebetter.Whenwemeetsomepeoplewhoareinphysicaldisability,pleasedonotsaytheyarecrippled,blind,deaf.Youcancalledthemthehandicapped,thenavoidingtohurttheiresteem,oryoumaygetanewfriend.3.2.2ShowingpolitenessPolitenessisasymbolofhumancivilization,itisalsoanimportantrulesinourhumansocialactivities.Intheprocedureofcommunication,peopletendstobepolite,andtriestheirbesttoavoidunnecessaryconflict.Occupationisasensitivetopicinsociallife.Infacttheoccupationisequalnomatterwhatjobtheydo,howmuchmoneytheyget.Sooursocietychoosesomebetternamesratherthancalltheiroccupationsdirectly.Herearesomeeuphemisticoccupations:waiter,waitressdinning-roomattendantsmaiddomesticgarbagecollectorsanitaryengineersecretaryadministrativeassistanthairdresserbeauticianorcosmetologistprostitutestreetgirlormemberoftheoldestprofessionditcherexcavationtechnicianhousewifedomesticengineer3.2.3DissimulationAmbiguouswordsareonepartofeuphemism.Tobehonest,thiskindofeuphemismisdeceptive,themainusersarethepoliticians,thedishonesttrader.Sinceancienttimes,thepoliticalscandal,war,economicissues,andcriminalsflowintothesociety,atthattime,theeuphemismplaysanimportantrole.Whensomeoneisindebt,weusuallysayheiscashadvance,orindifficulties.Oneunemployedmotheriscalledawelfaremother.Weknowtherateofcriminalsisveryhigh,thejuveniledelinquentoftenisdescribedproblemchildren,sowhenaproblemchildisputinprison,theirparentswillarguethatthechildjustintheadjustmentcenter,orfarcicallysaythechildisenjoyinggovernment’sexpense.Somepoliticians,diplomatistsorgovernmentsinordertofindareasonableexcusefortheirbehaviors,theytendtoadoptthevaguewords,eventhedeceptivelanguagetopullthemoutofthetroubles.In1972,American“WatergateScandal”shockedtheworld,todissimulatethesensitivepoliticalproblems,