第二语言相关学习策略

第二语言相关学习策略第一页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Agradualbutsignificantshiftoverthelastfewdecadesresultinginlessemphasisonteachersandteachingandgreaterstressonlearnersandlearning.Thischangereflectedinlanguageeducationandappliedlinguistics:theNortheastConference(1990)entitled"ShiftingtheInstructionalFocustotheLearner"andannual"Learners'Conferences"heldinconjuctionwiththeTESLCanadaconventionsince1991,tokeyworkson"thelearner-centredcurriculum"(Nunan,1988,1995)and"learner-centrednessaslanguageeducation"(Tudor,1996).第二页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日LaterMayer(1988)morespecificallydefinedLSas"behavioursofalearnerthatareintendedtoinfluencehowthelearnerprocessesinformation"(p.11).Clearly,LSareinvolvedinalllearning,regardlessofthecontentandcontext.第三页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日LSarethususedinlearningandteachingmath,science,history,languagesandothersubjects,bothinclassroomsettingsandmoreinformallearningenvironments.第四页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日O'MalleyandChamot(1990)definedLSas"thespecialthoughtsorbehavioursthatindividualsusetohelpthemcomprehend,learn,orretainnewinformation"(p.1).(Oxford,1990a),Oxford(1992/1993)providesspecificexamplesofLLSi.e.,"InlearningESL,Trang(1)watchesU.S.TVsoapoperas,(2)guessesthemeaningofnewexpressions(3)predictingwhatwillcomenext"第五页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Strategiesaretoolsfor(4)theself-directedinvolvementnecessaryfordevelopingcommunicativeability.(Oxford,1992/1993,p.18).Fromthesedefinitions,achangeovertimemaybenoted:fromtheearlyfocusontheproductofLSS(linguisticorsociolinguisticcompetence),toagreateremphasisontheprocesses

andthecharacteristicsofLLS.第六页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日LLSaredistinctfromlearningstyles,whichrefermorebroadlytoalearner's"natural,habitual,andpreferredway(s)ofabsorbing,processing,andretainingnewinformationandskills"(Reid,1995,p.viii),

thereisalsoobviousrelationshipbetweenlanguagelearningstyleandusualorpreferredlanguagelearningstrategies.第七页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日WhataretheCharacteristicsofLLS?Althoughtheterminologyisnotalwaysuniform,withsomewritersusingtheterms"learnerstrategies"(Wendin&Rubin,1987),others"learningstrategies"(O'Malley&Chamot,1990;Chamot&O'Malley,1994),andstillothers"languagelearningstrategies"(Oxford,1990a,1996),第八页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日thereareanumberofbasiccharacteristicsinthegenerallyacceptedviewofLLS.First,LLSarelearnergenerated;theyarestepstakenbylanguagelearners.Second,LLSenhancelanguagelearningandhelpdeveloplanguagecompetence,asreflectedinthelearner'sskillsinlistening,speaking,reading,orwritingtheL2orFL.Third,LLSmaybevisible(behaviours,steps,techniques,etc.)orunseen(thoughts,mentalprocesses).Fourth,LLSinvolveinformationandmemory(vocabularyknowledge,grammarrules,etc.).第九页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Animportantdistinctionexists,however,betweencommunicationandlanguagelearningstrategies.Communicationstrategies

areusedbyspeakersintentionallyandconsciously

inordertocopewithdifficultiesincommunicatinginaL2/FL(Bialystok,1990).第十页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日ThetermLLSisusedmoregenerallyforallstrategiesthatL2/FLlearnersuseinlearningthetargetlanguage,andcommunicationstrategiesarethereforejustonetypeofLLS.ForallL2teacherswhoaimtohelpdeveloptheirstudents'communicativecompetenceandlanguagelearning,then,anunderstandingofLLSiscrucial.AsOxford(1990a)putsit,LLS"...areespeciallyimportantforlanguagelearningbecausetheyaretoolsforactive,self-directedinvolvement,whichisessentialfordevelopingcommunicativecompetence"(p.1).第十一页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Inadditiontodevelopingstudents'communicativecompetence,LLSareimportantbecauseresearchsuggeststhattrainingstudentstouseLLScanhelpthembecomebetterlanguagelearners.Earlyresearchon'goodlanguagelearners'byNaiman,Frohlich,Stern,andTodesco(1978,1996),Rubin(1975),andStern(1975)suggestedanumberofpositivestrategiesthatsuchstudentsemploy,rangingfromusinganactivetaskapproachinandmonitoringone'sL2/FLperformancetolisteningtotheradiointheL2/FLandspeakingwithnativespeakers.第十二页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日O'MalleyandChamot(1990)alsosuggeststhateffectiveL2/FLlearnersareawareoftheLLStheyuseandwhytheyusethem.Graham's(1997)workinFrenchfurtherindicatesthatL2/FLteacherscanhelpstudentsunderstandgoodLLSandshouldtrainthemtodevelopandusethem.第十三页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Skehan(1989)cautions"thereisalwaysthepossibilitythatthe'good'languagelearningstrategies...arealsousedbybadlanguagelearners,butotherreasonscausethemtobeunsuccessful"(p.76).VannandAbraham(1990)foundevidencethatboth'good'and'unsuccessful'languagelearnerscanbeactiveusersofsimilarLLS,thoughitisimportantthattheyalsodiscoveredthattheirunsuccessfullearners"apparently...lacked...whatareoftencalledmetacognitivestrategies...whichwouldenablethemtoassessthetaskandbringtobearthenecessarystrategiesforitscompletion"(p.192).第十四页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日AnumberandrangeofLLSareimportantifL2/FLteachersaretoassiststudentsbothinlearningtheL2/FLandinbecominggoodlanguagelearners.第十五页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日WhatKindsofLLSAreThere?Thereareliterallyhundredsofdifferent,yetofteninterrelated,LLS.OxfordhasdevelopedafairlydetailedlistofLLSinhertaxonomyFirst,Oxford(1990b)distinguishesbetweendirectLLS,"whichdirectlyinvolvethesubjectmatter",i.e.theL2orFL,andindirectLLS,which"donotdirectlyinvolvethesubjectmatteritself,butareessentialtolanguagelearningnonetheless"(p.71).第十六页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Second,eachofthesebroadkindsofLLSisfurtherdividedintoLLSgroups.OxfordoutlinesthreemaintypesofdirectLLS,forexample.Memorystrategies"aidinenteringinformationintolong-termmemoryandretrievinginformationwhenneededforcommunication".CognitiveLLS"areusedforformingandrevisinginternalmentalmodelsandreceivingandproducingmessagesinthetargetlanguage".Compensationstrategies"areneededtoovercomeanygapsinknowledgeofthelanguage“(Oxford,1990b,p.71).第十七页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Oxford(1990a,1990b)alsodescribesthreetypesofindirectLLS.Metacognitivestrageties"helplearnersexercise'executivecontrol'throughplanning,arranging,focusing,andevaluatingtheirownlearning".AffectiveLLS"enablelearnerstocontrolfeelings,motivations,andattitudesrelatedtolanguagelearning".Finally,socialstrategies"facilitateinteractionwithothers,ofteninadiscoursesituation"(Oxford,1990b,p.71).第十八页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日USINGLLSINTHECLASSROOMContextsandClassesforLLSTrainingLLSandLLStrainingmaybeintegratedintoavarietyofclassesforL2/FLstudents.Onetypeofcoursethatappearstobebecomingmorepopular,especiallyinintensiveEnglishprogrammes,isonefocusingonthelanguagelearningprocessitself.第十九页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Inthiscase,textssuchasEllisandSinclair's(1989)LearningtoLearnEnglish:ACourseinLearnerTrainingorRubinandThompson's(1994)HowtoBeaMoreSuccessfulLanguageLearnermightbeusedinordertohelpL2/FLlearnersunderstandthelanguagelearningprocess,thenatureoflanguageandcommunication,whatlanguagelearningresourcesareavailabletothem,andwhatspecificLLStheymightuseinordertoimprovetheirownvocabularyuse, grammarknowledge,andL2/FLskillsinreading,writing,listening,andspeaking.第二十页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日ThreestepapproachtoimplementingLLStraininginthe