气象科技英语

气象科技英语第一页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日3.科技英语的语法英语句子都是由词汇按一定规律组成的，这种语言结构的规律就是语法。学习语法有助于正确使用英语进行写作、说话，也有助于阅读和理解英语文献。在科技英语中常会遇到长而难懂的句子，常常需要借助于语法分析来理解它们。长句子常常是由于在主要成分上附加了许多修饰成分而构成的。我们只要对英语的基本句型非常熟悉，就不难找出长句中的“主要成分”，然后再来处理“附加成分”，问题就容易解决了。3.1英语的基本句型英语句子是由一些基本成分构成的，这些基本成分包括主语(S)，谓语动词(V)，表语(P)，宾语(O)，补语(C)等。根据构成句子的基本成分的不同可以把英语句子划分成不同的句型。科技英语中常见的句型可分为一般句型和特殊句型两大类。其中一般句型又可分为主动句(谓语动词为主动语态)和被动句(谓语动词为被动语态)两类。下面是它们的基本格式：第二页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日一般主动句：主语(S)，谓语动词(V)，表语(P)，宾语(O)，补语(C)(1)SV

例：Airmassmoves.(2)SVP

例：Meteorologyisthescienceofatmosphere.(3)SVO

例：Computerassessestheobservationaldata.(4)SVO间接O直接例：Thesungivesuslight.(5)SVOC

例：Wefinditveryuseful.一般被动句：

(1)SV

例：Theballoonisreleased.(2)SVO

例：Asymbolisgiveneachmeteorologicalelement.(3)SVC

例：Theconditionisknownassupercooling.特殊句：第三页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日(1)疑问句例：Isoxygenagas?(一般疑问句)How(What，Where,When,…)doesradarwork?(特殊疑问句)(2)命令句例：Explainit,please.(3)存在句例：Therearemanyformsofenergy.(4)省略句例：Tstandsfortemperature,PforpressureandVforwindspeed.(5)强调句例：Onlythuscanwedoitbetter.

ItwasGalileowhoinventedthermometer.

Itistheprotonsthatarepositive.(6)先行词it结构例：Itisnecessaryto…that…Wedeemitnecessaryto…that…(7)比较结构例：Themore…Themore…Thelongerthebetter第四页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日3.2长句的分析在基本成分上附加很多修饰成分就构成长句。一般来说，英语修饰成分有两种，即前置修饰和后置修饰。它们分别出现在被修饰成分之前或之后。例如,animportantquestion(前置修饰)，somethingimportant(后置修饰)。前置修饰一般容易分析，后置修饰的分析则较麻烦。例如：Theairwhichismovingswiftlyusuallyhashighkineticenergy.Theswiftlymovingairusuallyhashighkineticenergy.上两句中，前一句就比后一句稍麻烦些。因此句子分析的重点不仅在于分析修饰成分，而且主要在于分析后置修饰成分。后置修饰成分除了个别由单词构成外，一般是由从句、短语构成的。能构成修饰成分的从句和短语有：介词短语、不定式短语、现在分词和过去分词短语、形容词从句(定语从句)、副词从句(状语从句)。具体作句子分析时，可按下列步骤进行：第五页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日(1)找出句子中的各种从句从句一般可以凭借引导词，如what,which,who,where,when,how,why等来辨认。其中名词从句常用的引导词有that,whether,if(以上为从属连词)，who,which,what(以上为连接代词)，when,where,how,why(以上为连接副词)。形容词从句常用的引导词有who,which,that(以上为关系代词)，when,where,why(以上为关系副词)。副词从句都由从属连词引导。(2)找出句中(包括从句中)的短语(介词短语、分词短语、不定式等)短语一般凭借介词如of,in，…等，不定式标志to，以及分词词尾ing或ed或其它不规则形式的分词来判断。第六页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日(3)然后，分辨这些从句或短语在句子中的作用。即判断它们是句子中的基本成分还是修饰成分。一种分辨方法是将这个从句或短语从句子中删去，若严重损害句子的基本结构或意义，则说明它是基本成分，否则便是修饰成分。(4)将从句、短语纳回到句型中去。再根据逻辑或专业内容，语言或语法要求以及上、下文来判断它们所修饰的成分。对于后置修饰，可以通过“向前推断”的方法来判断。即对该修饰成分之前的第一个、第二个、第三个、……词逐个地进行推断，直至找出它所修饰的词为止。第七页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日通过上述分析过程，一般来说全句的语法结构和意义便已清楚了。下面我们来看一个实例：Thediscoveryoftheupperairwaveasanevenmoreimportantseatofenergythantheassociatedlowlevelcyclone,followedbythetheoreticalanalystofRossby(basedonHelmholtz′svorticitytheorem)beforeWorldWarⅡ，andofsuchinvestigatorsasCharney,Eady,Fjortoft,Eliassen,Starr,Kuo,Lorenz,andPhillips,afterthewar,hasfinallyledto

theestablishmentofafairlyconsistentpictureofthelargescalemotionsoftheatmosphere,culminating终极inPhillipssuccessfulnumericalsolutionforthemainpropertiesofthegeneralcirculation(1956).在上面的长句中，主要成分是Thediscoveryhasledtotheestablishment.这是SVO结构的一般主动句。所有其它的介词短语、副词及分词从句都是修饰主语、谓语和宾语的。像这一类的长句在《读物选》的课文中经常可见。作为练习，大家可以自己将它们找出来，进行分析练习，这对提高对长句的阅读理解能力是有好处的。第八页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日3METEOROLOGICALFORECASTSNewWordsaviationn.飞行，航空issuancen.发布warningn.警报worldwidea.世界范围的GMT(GreenwichMeanTime)格林尼治标准时间upper-aira.高空的soundingn.探测networkn.网状组织watchn.监视WWW(WorldWeatherWatch)世界天气监视网coden.v.电码，编码teletypev.电传打字机telecommunicationn.无线电远程通讯GTS(globaltelecommunicationsystem)全球电(传通)信系统Melbournen.(澳)墨尔本Moscown.(苏)莫斯科redistributionn.再分发territoryn.地区，领域cooperatev.合作aegisn.保护undertheaegisof在……支持下operationallyad.业务上第九页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日USSR(UnionofSovietSocialistRepublics)苏联agencyn.代办处，机构EuropeanSpaceAgency欧洲空间管理站orbitern.轨道飞行器coveragen.覆盖stripn.长带NOAA(NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration)诺阿卫星(美国国家海洋大气管理局)TIROS(televisionandinfraredobservingsatellite)泰罗斯卫星(电视红外业务卫星)Meteorn.流星卫星geosynchronousa.地球同步的coveragen.覆盖stripn.长带NOAA(NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration)诺阿卫星(美国国家海洋大气管理局)TIROS(televisionandinfraredobservingsatellite)泰罗斯卫星(电视红外业务卫星)Meteorn.流星卫星geosynchronousa.地球同步的geostationarya.相对于地球静止的

GOES(geostationaryoperationalenvironmentalsatellite)地球静止业务环境卫星Metosatn.梅多沙特卫星repetitivea.重复的digitala.数字的readoutn.读出multi-channela.多通道的microwaven.微波sensorn.感应器DCS(datacollectionsystem)资料收集系统relayv.中继buoyn.浮标站processv.加工，处理，整理facsimilen.传真APT(automaticpicturetransmission)自动图片发送第十页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日assemblev.组装，汇编telegraphyn.电报GreatExhibition博览会barometrica.气压的short-rangea.短期的extendv.延伸long-rangea.长期的revolutionizev.(使)革命化，重大改变nowcastingn.现时预报empiricala.经验的extrapolationn.外推forecastern.预报员UnitedKingdom联合王国routinen.常规conservationn.保守divergencen.辐散derivev.导出，获得necessitatev.使…成为需要，以…为条件prognosis(prognoses)n.预测interpolationn.内插smoothv.弄平滑,a.平滑的geopotentiala.位势的predictionn.预报spectrala.谱的integratev.积分nestv.嵌套several-foldad.翻几番halvev.减半MSL(meansealevel)平均海平面MOS(modeloutputstatistics)模式输出统计regressionn.回归predictorn.预报因子thunderstormn.雷暴第十一页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日deficiencyn.缺乏satellite-deriveda.卫星导出的imposev.强加parameterizev.参数化sub-gridn.次网格unpredictablea.不可预报的precisionn.精密，正确scattereda.分散的，稀疏的subjectivea.主观的frame-workn.框架topographica.地形的site-specifica.定点的gustn.阵风tornadon.(陆)龙卷freezinga.冻结的supplementv.补充arrayn.系列，数组soundern.探测器acoustica.听觉的，声的Doppler(radar)n.多普勒雷达insectn.昆虫refractivea.折射的index(indices)n.指数，索引interpretationn.解释，说明personneln.全体人员softwaren.软件prompta.迅速的，立即行动的，v.激励，提醒shearn.切变downburstn.下击暴流predictabilityn.可预报性第十二页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日

3METEOROLOGICALFORECASTSTextNationalMeteorologicalServicesperformavarietyofactivitiesinordertoprovideweatherforecasts.Theprincipalonesaredatacollection,thepreparationofbasicanalysesandprognosticchartsofatmosphereconditionsforusebylocalweatheroffices,thepreparationofshortandlongtermforecastsforthepublicaswellasspecialservicesforaviation,shipping,agriculturalandothercommercialandindustrialusers,andtheissuanceofsevereweatherwarnings.第十三页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日1DatasourcesThedatarequiredforforecastingandotherservicesareprovidedbyworldwidestandardsynopticreportsat00,06,12and18GMT,similarobservationsmadehourly,particularlyinsupportofnationalaviationrequirements,upperairsoundings(at00and12GMT),satellitedataandotherspecializednetworkssuchasradarstationsforsevereweather.UndertheWorldWeatherWatch(WWW)program,synopticreportsaremadeatsome4,000landstationsandby7,000ships.Thereareabout700stationsmakingupperairsoundings(temperature,pressure,humidityandwind).Thesedataaretransmittedincodevia通过

teletypeandradiolinksinregionalornationalcentersandintothehighspeedGlobalTelecommunicationsSystem(GTS)connectingWorldWeatherCentersinMelbourne,MoscowandWashingtonandelevenRegionalMeteorologicalCentersforredistribution.Some157statesandterritoriescooperateinthisactivityundertheaegis保护oftheWorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO).第十四页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日MeteorologicalinformationhasbeencollectedoperationallybysatellitesoftheUnitedStatesandUSSRsince1965and,morerecently,bytheEuropeanSpaceAgency,IndiaandJapan.Therearetwogeneralcategoriesofweathersatellite：polarorbitersprovidingglobalcoveragetwiceper24hoursinorbitalstrips

带overthepoles(suchastheUnitedStatesNOAAandTIROSseries,andtheUSSR′sMeteor)andgeosynchronoussatellites(suchastheGeostationaryOperationalEnvironmentalSatellites(GOES)andMetosat),givingrepetitive重复的(30minute)coverageofalmostonethirdoftheearth′ssurfaceinlowmiddlelatitudes.Informationontheatmosphereiscollectedasdigitaldataordirectreadoutvisibleandinfraredimagesofcloudcoverandseasurfacetemperature,butalsoincludesglobaltemperatureandmoistureprofilesthroughtheatmosphereobtainedfrommulti-channelinfraredandmicrowavesensorswhichreceiveradiationemittedfromparticularlevelsintheatmosphere.Additionally,satelliteshaveadatacollectionsystem(DCS)thatrelays中继dataonnumerousenvironmentalvariationsfromgroundplatformsoroceanbuoystoprocessingcenters;GOEScanalsotransmitprocessedsatelliteimagesinfacsimile传真andtheNOAApolarorbitershaveanautomaticpicturetransmission(APT)systemthatisutilizedat900stationsworldwide.第十五页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日

2ForecastingModernforecastingdidnotbecomepossibleuntilweatherinformationcouldberapidlycollected,assembled组装，汇编andprocessed.Thefirstdevelopmentcameinthemiddleofthelastcenturywiththeinventionoftelegraphy,whichpermittedimmediateanalysisofweatherdatabythedrawingofsynopticcharts.ThesewerefirstdisplayedinBritainattheGreatExhibitionof1851SequencesofweatherchangewerecorrelatedwithbarometricpressurepatternsbothinspaceandtimebysuchworkersasFitzroyandAbereroleby,butitwasnotuntillaterthattheoreticalmodelsofweathersystemsweredevised——notablytheBjerknesdepressionmodel.Forecastsareusuallyreferredtoasshort-range,medium(orextended)rangeandlong-range.Thefirsttwocanforpresentpurposesbeconsideredtogether.第十六页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Short-rangeforecastingForecastingproceduresdevelopeduptothe1950swerebasedonsynopticprinciplesbut,sincethe1960s,practiceshavebeenrevolutionizedbynumericalforecastingmodelsandtheadoptionof"nowcasting"techniques.Duringthefirsthalfofthecentury,short-rangeforecastswerebasedonsynopticprinciples,empiricalrulesandextrapolationofpressurechanges.Since1955routineforecastshavebeenbasedonnumericalmodels.Thesepredicttheevolutionofphysicalprocessesintheatmospherebydeterminationsoftheconservationofmass,energyandmomentum.Thebasicprincipleisthattheriseorfallofsurfacepressureisrelatedtomassconvergenceordivergence,respectively,intheoverlyingaircolumn.第十七页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Forecastpracticesinthemajornationalcentersarebasicallysimilar.Theforecastsareessentiallyderivedfromtwice-daily(00and12GMT)prognosesofatmosphericcirculation.Sincemosttechniquesarenowlargelyautomated,theanalysesofsynopticfieldsarebasedontheprevious12-hourforecastmapsasafirstguess.Threedifferentinterpolationmethodsareusedtoobtainsmoothed,grideddataontemperature,moisture,windandgeopotentialheightforthesurfaceatstandardpressurelevels(850,700,500,400,300,250,200and100mb)overtheglobe.TheNMCcurrentlyhastwobasicpredictionmodels:aspecialmodelwith(6or)12layers(fromtheboundarylayerintotheupperstratosphere),whichisintegratedforupto10days,andaregionallyapplicablenestedgridmodelwithfiner

horizontalresolution.Itshouldbenotedthattypicallythecomputertimerequiredincreasesseveral-foldwhenthegridspacingishalved减半.TheessentialforecastproductsareMSLpressure,temperatureandwindvelocityforstandardpressurelevels,1000500mbthickness,verticalmotionandmoisturecontentinthelowertroposphere,andprecipitationamounts.第十八页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日ActualweatherconditionsarenowcommonlypredictedusingtheModelOutputStatistics(MOS)techniquedevelopedbytheUSNationalWeatherService.Ratherthanrelatingweathervariablestothepredictedpressure/heightpatternsandtakingaccountoffrontalmodels,forexample,aseriesofregressionequationsaredevelopedforspecificlocationsbetweenthevariableofinterestandupto10predictorscalculatedbythenumericalmodels.Weatherelementssopredictedfornumerouslocationsincludedailymaximum/minimumtemperature,12hourprobabilityofprecipitationoccurrencesandprecipitationamount,probabilityoffrozenprecipitation,thunderstormoccurrence,cloudcoverandsurfacewinds.Theseforecastsaredistributedasfacsimilemapsandtablestoweatherofficesforlocaluse.第十九页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日Errorsinnumericalforecastsarisefromseveralsources.Oneofthemostseriousisthelimitedaccuracyoftheinitialanalysesduetodatadeficiencies.Theaverageovertheoceansissparseandonlyaquarterofthepossibleshipreportsmaybereceivedwithin12hours;evenoverlandmorethanone-thirdofthesynopticreportsmaybedelayedbeyond6hours.However,satellitederivedinformationandaircraftreportscanhelpfillsomegapsfortheupperair.Anotherlimitationisimposedbythehorizontalandverticalresolutionofthemodelsandtheneedtoparameterizesub-gridprocessessuchascumulusconvection.Thesmall-scalenatureoftheturbulentmotionoftheatmospheremeansthatsomeweatherphenomenaarebasicallyunpredictable,forexample,thespecificlocationsofshowercellsinanunstableairmass.Greaterprecisionthatthe"showersandbrightperiods"or"scatteredshowers"oftheforecastlanguageisimpossiblewithpresenttechniques.Theprocedureforpreparingaforecastisbecomingmuchlesssubjective,althoughincomplexweathersituationstheskilloftheexperiencedforecasterstillmakesthetechniquealmostasmuchasartas

ascience.Detailedregionalorlocalpredictionscanonlybemadewithintheframeworkofthegeneralforecastsituationforthecountryanddemandthoroughknowledgeofpossibletopographicorotherlocaleffectsbytheforecaster.第二十页，共二十四页，2022年，8月28日NowcastingSevereweatheristypicallyshort-lived(＜2hr)and,duetoitsmesoscalecharacter(＜100km),itaffectslocal/regionalareasnecessitatingsitespecificforecasts.Includedinthiscategoryarethunderstorms,gustfronts,tornadoes,highwindsespeciallyalongcoasts,overlakesandmountains,heavysnowandfreezingprecipitation.Thedevelopmentofradarnetworks,nowinstrumentsandhighspeedcommunicationlinkshasprovidedameansofissuingwarningsofsuchphenomena.Severalcountrieshaverecentlydevelopedintegratedsatelliteandradarsystemstoprovideinformationonthehorizontalandverticalextentofthunderstorms,forexample.Suchdataaresupplementedbynetworksofautomaticweatherstations(includingbuoys)thatmeasurewind,temperatureandhumidity.In