制药工程专业英语Unit1教案资料

TheprofessionalEnglishofpharmaceuticalengineeringWangXinliangEastChinauniversityofscienceandtechnology13.02.2012第一页，共81页。FinalexaminationTwoparts:gradeofdailystudy(30%)attendanceratehomeworkothers(exercise,middleexamination)gradeoffinalexamination(70%)Thecontentofexamination第二页，共81页。ThecontentofexaminationDegreetest

50%basicEnglish

50%professionalEnglish

word:translationfromEnglishtoChinese(5points)translationfromChinesetoEnglish(5points)Translation:(40points)4paragraphswhichincludeabout250wordsineachofthem.payattentiontoonly125to150wordsineachparagraphneedtobetranslated.These4paragraphsarenotsimplesentence.第三页，共81页。HowtolearntheprofessionalEnglishMastersomeskillsMasterthenecessaryknowledgeWhatisthemostimportantthingmorereading,morespeaking,morewriting第四页，共81页。Whatistheimportantthinginthiscourseremembertheword?translatesentencebysentence?learnmoreprofessionalknowledge?YoudaoDict有道(yǒudào)词典HowtoteachtheprofessionalEnglish第五页，共81页。Crocinyellow（藏花素）,whichisextractedfromGardeniajasminoidesEllis（栀子(zhīzǐ)）,iswidelyusedasanaturalfoodcolorantinAsiancountries,whileGardeniaextracthasbeenusedinChinesetraditionalmedicine(CTM)forcuringanumberofailments[3].Thesecrocetin（藏红花酸）derivatives,whicharedifferentfrommostfamiliesofcarotenoids（类胡萝卜素）,areknownfortheircoloringpropertiesowingtotheirpeculiarwater-solublebehavior[4].Numerousstudieshavedealtwiththecomponentstructuresofyellowpigmentextractsisolatedfromgardeniafruits[4–8],theirspectroscopiccharacterizationandradical-scavengingactivity[4,9],dataconcerningtheconcentrationofmajorcomponentsforthedeterminationofoptimaltimeofharvestandextractionprocess[10,11].第六页，共81页。ThecontentofthiscourseIntroducesomeskillsoftranslationanddosomeexerciseintheclassroom.SummarizesomeregulationsintheprofessionalEnglish.Learnthetext.Discusssometopics.第七页，共81页。Part1MedicinalchemistryUnit1ProductionofDrugsThewholeconceptoftheproductionofdrugsTheclassificationofthedrugsTheintroductionofeachgroupofdrugs

第八页，共81页。Thefirstquestion:howtoclassifythedrugDependingonthekindsofdisease:CardiovasculardrugsDigestivesystemdrugsRespiratorysystemdrugsAntiviraldrugsProprietarydrugsorGenericdrugsDependingontheproductionororigin:第九页，共81页。药品的生产依据其生产或来源，药物制剂可以分为三类：I.完全的合成材料（人工合成材料），II.天然(tiānrán)产物，和III.源自部分合成的产品（半合成产品）。

Dependingontheirproductionororiginpharmaceuticalagentscanbesplitintothreegroups:I.Totallysyntheticmaterials(synthetics)，II.Naturalproducts，andIII.Productsfrompartialsyntheses(semi-syntheticproducts).Unit1ProductsofDrugs第十页，共81页。Wordssyntheticsglycoside(s)hydrolysatedextrantargetedmodificationEpinephrineLevodopaProstaglandinsD-PenicillamineVincamineEukaryontProkaryontLeuconostocmesenteroidesCorynebacteriumglutamicumBrevibacteriumflavumPropionibacteriumshermaniipurinanucleotidecitricacidmonosodiumL-glutamatechromatinn.[用作复]人工合成(绝缘)材料n.配醣；配糖体；糖苷n.水解液；水解产物n.葡萄(pútáo)聚糖；右旋糖酐定向（或靶向）修饰n.肾上腺素n.[药]左旋多巴（等于L-dopa）n.前列腺素（prostaglandin的复数形式）n.D-青霉胺n.长春胺n.真核细胞n.原核细胞肠膜状明串珠菌谷氨酸棒杆菌黄色短杆菌谢氏丙酸杆菌嘌呤核苷（酸）柠檬酸谷氨酸钠（味精）n.核染色质；核染质第十一页，共81页。AlkalimetalLilithiumNasodiumKpotassiumRbrubidiumCscaesiumFrfranciumHhydrogen第十二页，共81页。本书的重点是在于Ⅰ和Ⅲ类中最重要的化合物——药物合成。但是，这并不意味着，天然产品或其他制剂并不太重要。它们可以(kěyǐ)作为有价值的先导结构，他们常常作为重要的合成产品的起始原料或中间体产品。表1列出了获取药物制剂的不同方法的概述。

TheemphasisofthepresentbookisonthemostimportantcompoundsofgroupsIandⅢ-thusDrugsynthesis.Thisdoesnotmean，however，thatnaturalproductsorotheragentsarelessimportant.Theycanserveasvaluableleadstructures，andtheyarefrequentlyneededasstartingmaterialsorasintermediatesforimportantsyntheticproducts.Table1givesanoverviewofthedifferentmethodsforobtainingpharmaceuticalagents.第十三页，共81页。最初从天然资源库获得的几个重要治疗作用的天然产品，今天可以通过全合成更有效地，例如更经济地被制备(zhìbèi)出来。这样的例子包括L-氨基酸、氯霉素、咖啡因、多巴胺、肾上腺素、左旋多巴、肽类激素、前列腺素、D-青霉胺、长春胺，以及几乎所有的维生素。

Severaltherapeuticallysignificantnaturalproductswhichwereoriginallyobtainedfromnaturalsourcesaretodaymoreeffectively-i.e.moreeconomically-preparedbytotalsynthesis.SuchexamplesincludeL-aminoacids,Chloramphenicol,Caffeine,Dopamine,

Epinephrine,Levodopa,peptidehormones,Prostaglandins,D-Penicillamine,Vincamine,

andpracticallyallvitamins.第十四页，共81页。在过去的几年里，发酵(fājiào)，即微生物过程，变得极其重要。通过现代技术和基因选择导致的微生物的高性能突异变种的结果，发酵(fājiào)已成为选择宽范围物质的方法。真核细胞（酵母菌和霉菌）和原核细胞（单细胞细菌，放线菌）都可用作微生物。可以得到下列产品类型：

Overthelastfewyearsfermentation-i.e.microbiologicalprocesseshasbecomeextremelyimportant.Throughmoderntechnologyandresultsfromgeneticselectionleadingtothecreationofhighperformancemutantsofmicroorganisms,fermentationhasalreadybecomethemethodofchoiceforawiderangeofsubstances.BothEukaryonts(yeastsandmoulds)andProkaryonts(singlebacterialcells,andactinomycetes)areusedmicroorganisms.Thefollowingproducttypescanbeobtained:

第十五页，共81页。尽管从诸如肠膜状明串球菌的某些微生物的黏膜可以生产葡萄聚糖，但第2和3类产品类型只与药品生产的有关。葡聚糖自身的分子量5万〜10万，可用作血浆代用品。而来自谷氨酸棒杆菌和黄色短杆菌突变体的初级代谢产物中，L-氨基酸尤其令人感兴趣。从这些生物体中，可以生产约35万吨L-谷氨酸单钠盐（味精，食品添加剂）和约70,000吨L-赖氨酸（用于植物蛋白补充物质）。此外，重要的初级代谢产物还有嘌呤(piàolìng)核苷酸、有机酸、乳酸、柠檬酸和维生素，例如源自谢氏丙酸杆菌的维生素B12。

Disregardingtheproductionofdextranfromthemucousmembranesofcertainmicroorganisms，e.g.Leuconostocmesenteroides,classes2and3

are

therelevantonesforthepreparationofdrugs.Dextranitself,withamolecularweightof50,000~100,000,isusedasabloodplasmasubstitute.AmongtheprimarymetabolitestheL-aminoacidsfrommutantsofCorynebacteriumglutamicum

andBrevibacteriumflavum

areespeciallyinteresting.Fromtheseorganismssome350,000tonesofmonosodiumL-glutamate(foodadditive)andsome70,000tonesofL-lysine(supplementforvegetableproteins)areproduced.Furtherimportantprimarymetabolitesarethepurinanucleotides,organicacids,

lacticacid,citricacid,andvitamins,forexamplevitaminB12fromPropionibacteriumshermanii.第十六页，共81页。在次生代谢产物中首先必须提到的是抗生素。以下五组药品代表了全球每年(měinián)价值170亿美元：

青霉素类（产黄青霉），头孢菌素类（顶头孢霉菌），四环素类（金霉素链霉菌），红霉素类（红霉素链霉菌），氨基糖苷（如来自灰色链霉菌的链霉素）。

Amongthesecondarymetabolitestheantibioticsmustbementionedfirst.ThefollowingfivegroupsrepresentayearlyworldwidevalueofUS-$17billion:penicillins(Penicilliumchrysogenum)，cephalosporins(Cephalosporiumacremonium)，tetracyclines(Streptomycesaureofaciens)，erythromycins(Streptomyceserythreus)，aminoglycosides(e.g.streptomycinfromStreptomycesgriseus).第十七页，共81页。Dextranisapolymerofglucose.Itisawhitepowderanditissolubleinwaterandinsolubleinethanol.Dextrancanincreasetheplasmavolumeandmaintainthebloodpressure,soitcanbeusedforasabloodplasmasubstitute.Itcanbeproducedbyfermentationofsucroseinleuconostocmesenteroides.Certainly,thefermentationonlyproducetherawmaterialandthesomepurificationisnecessary.

ThesimpleintroductionofdextranMolecularformula:（C6H10O5）nglucose葡萄糖fructose果糖(guǒtáng)mono-,di-,tri-,polymer单体(dāntǐ)，二聚体，三聚体，聚合体(物)sucrosen.蔗糖(zhètáng)第十八页，共81页。从微生物中已分离出约5000种抗生素，但其中只有不到100种有治疗用途。但是，必须记住，许多衍生物已通过部分合成法来修饰以获得治疗用途；在过去的十年里，采用半合成方法(fāngfǎ)已从ß-内酰胺获得了约50,000种制剂。发酵是在体积高达400m3的不锈钢发酵罐中进行。为了避免受到噬菌体等微生物的污染，（发酵）全过程都必须在无菌条件下进行。由于更重要的是，发酵只在有氧条件下才能发生；因此，需要提供有足够量的（无菌）氧气或空气。二氧化碳的来源包括糖类（碳水化合物），如废糖浆、低聚糖类和葡萄糖。

About5000antibioticshavealreadybeenisolatedfrommicroorganisms,butoftheseonlysomewhatfewerthan100areintherapeuticuse.Itmustberemembered，however，thatmanyderivativeshavebeenmodifiedbypartialsynthesisfortherapeuticuse;some50,000agentshavebeensemisyntheticallyobtainedfromß-lactamsaloneinthelastdecade.Fermentationsarecarriedoutinstainlesssteelfermentorswithvolumesupto400m3.Toavoidcontaminationofthemicroorganismswithphagesetc.thewholeprocesshastobeperformedundersterileconditions.Sincethemoreimportantfermentationsoccurexclusivelyunderaerobicconditions,agoodsupplyofoxygenorair(sterile)isneeded.Carbondioxidesourcesincludecarbohydrates,e.g.molasses,saccharides,andglucose.第十九页，共81页。Wordsammonium（ammonia）aminesodiumbicarbonatesodiumhydroxidehydrochloric/sulfuric/nitricacidhypochloritechloritechlorate

perchloratenitritenitratesulfidesulfitesulfate

persulfatephosphitehypophosphite

phosphatedihydrogenphosphatehydrogenphosphate铵；铵盐（氨；氨水）胺碳酸氢钠；小苏打、NaHCO3氢氧化钠、NaOH盐酸；硫酸(liúsuān)；硝酸次氯酸盐（酯）亚氯酸盐（酯）氯酸盐（酯）高氯酸盐（酯）亚硝酸盐（酯）硝酸盐（酯）硫化物；硫醚亚硫酸(liúsuān)盐（酯）硫酸(liúsuān)盐（酯）过硫酸(liúsuān)盐（酯）亚磷酸盐（酯）次磷酸盐（酯）磷酸盐（酯）磷酸二氢盐磷酸一氢盐第二十页，共81页。Prefix----------Parent-----------SuffixNomenclatureofparentpart:NomenclatureofalkanesandalkylsubstituentsStraight-chainalkanes

Straight-chainalkanesarenamedbycountingthenumberofcarbonatomsinthechainandaddingthefamilysuffix-ane.Thuspentaneisthefive-carbonalkane,andhexaneisthesix-carbonalkane.NomenclatureofOrganicCompounds1第二十一页，共81页。Analkylsubstituent(oranalkylgroup)isanalkanefromwhichasinglehydrogenhasbeenremoved.Alkylsubstituentsarenamedbyreplacingthe“ane”suffixofthealkanewith“yl”.Theletter“R”isusedtoindicateanyalkylgroup.ThusCH3-hasthenameofmethyl,whilethegroupofCH3CH2-wasnamedethyl.第二十二页，共81页。NumberMolecularNameNameinAlkylofcarbonsformulaChinesesubstituents1 CH4 Methane 甲烷 Methyl2 C2H6 Ethane 乙烷 Ethyl3 C3H8 Propane 丙烷 Propyl4 C4H10 Butane 丁烷 Butyl5 C5H12 Pentane 戊烷 Pentyl6 C6H14 Hexane 己烷 Hexyl7C7H16 Heptane 庚烷 Heptyl8 C8H18 Octane 辛烷 Octyl9 C9H20 Nonane 壬烷 Nonyl10 C10H22 Decane 癸烷 Decyl11 C11H24Undecane 十一(Shí－Yī)烷 Undecyl12 C12H26 Dodecane 十二烷 Dodecyl13 C13H28 Tridecane 十三烷 Tridecyl20 C20H42Icosane 二十烷 Icosyl21 C21H44Heneicosane 二十一(Shí－Yī)烷Heneicosyl30 C30H62 Triacontane 三十烷 Triacontyl第二十三页，共81页。Branched-chainalkanes3-ethyl-3-methylhexane第二十四页，共81页。SomeusefulprefixesforindicatingthenumberofsubstituentgroupsMono- 单取代(qǔdài),一取代(qǔdài)Di- 二取代(qǔdài)Tri- 三取代(qǔdài)Tetra- 四取代(qǔdài)Pent(a)- 五取代(qǔdài)Hex(a)- 六取代(qǔdài)Hept(a)- 七取代(qǔdài)Oct(a)- 八取代(qǔdài)Nona- 九取代(qǔdài)Deca- 十取代(qǔdài)2,6-dimethyloctanenot2-ethyl-6-methylheptane3-ethyl-2-methylhexanenot3-isopropylhexane第二十五页，共81页。Someusefulprefixesusedtonamebranchedalkanes(Commonnames)(normal)n- 正(isomer)iso- 异neo- 新primary 伯，一级(secondary)sec-仲，二级(tertiary)tert- 叔，三级quaternary 季，四级

n-pentaneneopentaneisobutane正戊烷新戊烷异丁烷

Pentane2,2-dimethylpropane2-methylpropanetert-butanoliso-butanamine

sec-butanamine叔丁醇异丁胺仲丁胺2-methyl-2-propanol2-methylpropanamine1-methylpropanamine第二十六页，共81页。

Theunivalentradicalderivedfromacyclicalkeneoralkynehastheendings“-enyl”or“-ynyl”,(alkenealkenyl)(alkynealkynyl),andthepositionofthedoubleortriplebondisindicatedwherenecessary.(unlikealkanealkyl)e.g.

1-propenyl2-butenyl

ethynyl2-propynyl第二十七页，共81页。Thefollowingnon-systematicnamesareretainedEthylene(乙烯）Allene（丙二烯）Acetylene（乙炔(yǐquē)）Isoprene（异戊二烯）Vinyl（乙烯基）Allyl（烯丙基）Isopropenyl（异丙烯基）第二十八页，共81页。NomenclatureofacyclichydrocarbonswithtwoormoredoubleortriplebondsTwoormoredoublebonds:theendingwillbe“-adiene”,“-atriene”etc.(alkadiene)Twoormoretriplebonds:theendingwillbe“-adiyne”,“-atriyne”etc.(alkadiyne)e.g.

2-methyl-1,3-butadienepropadiene2,5-dimethyl-2,4,6-octatriene

3-ethyl-4-methyl-1,6-heptadiyne第二十九页，共81页。Nomenclatureofmonocyclicaromatichydrocarbons苯甲苯二甲苯苯乙烯异丙苯均三甲苯benzenetoluenexylenestyrenecumenemesitylene苯基(běnjī)甲苯基(běnjī)二甲苯基(běnjī)苯乙烯基异丙苯基(běnjī)均三甲苯基(běnjī)苄基Phenyltolylxylylstyrylcumenylmesitylbenzyl第三十页，共81页。Commonnamesretainedforthedisubstitutedbenzeneortho-,o- 邻meta-,m- 间para-,p- 对

m-methylbenzylm-tolyl3,4-dimethylphenyl3-methylbenzyl

3-tolyl

o-styrylp-cumenyl3,5-dimethyl-4-ethylphenyl

2-styryl4-cumenyl

第三十一页，共81页。SomeimportantFamiliesoforganicmoleculesSaturatedhydrocarbons:suchas:Alkanes;cycloalkanes;Un-saturatedhydrocarbons:suchas:alkenes;alkynes;cycloalkenes;cycloalkynes;cycloalkadienes;cycloalkadiynes;Aromaticcompouds:benzene;biphenyl;naphthaleneandotherfusedandpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons;Compoundswithfunctionalgroups:alkylhalides（卤代烃）;alcohols（醇）;phenols（酚）;ethers（醚）;amines（胺）;Compoundswithfunctionalgroups:aldehydes（醛）;ketones（酮）;quinones（醌）;carboxylicacids（羧酸(suōsuān)）;esters（酯）;acylhalides（酰卤）;acidanhydrides（酸酐）amides（酰胺）;imides（亚胺）;第三十二页，共81页。Compoundswithfunctionalgroups:

alkylhalides（卤代烃）;alcohols（醇）;phenols（酚）;ethers（醚）;amines（胺）etc.alkylhalides R-X halogen(-halo)(-Cl,-Br,-F,-I)Alcohols R-OH hydroxygroup(-OH)Phenols Ar-OH hydroxygroup(-OH)Ethers R-O-R’ Alkoxygroup(O-R’)Amines R-NH2 aminogroup(NH2)第三十三页，共81页。

Alkylhalides(haloalkaneoralkyl

halide)Alkylhalidesareclassifiedasprimary,secondary,ortertiarydependingonthecarbontowhichthehalogenisattached.第三十四页，共81页。

Thecommonnamesofthealkylhalidesareobtainedbycitingthenameofthealkylgroupfollowedbythenameofthehalogen.(alkyl

halide)

IntheIUPACsystem,alkylhalidesarenamedassubstitutedalkanes.Thesubstitutedprefixnamesforthehalogensendin“o”(fluoro,chloro,bromo,iodo).(haloalkane)第三十五页，共81页。Alcohols

Thecommonnames,similartoalkylhalides,areobtainedbycitingthenameofthealkylgrouptowhichtheOHgroupisattached,followedbytheword“alcohol”.(alkyl

alcohol)

TheIUPACnameforanalcoholisobtainedbyremovingthe“e”fromthenameofthealkaneandaddingthesuffix“ol”.(alkanol)Nomenclatureofalcohols第三十六页，共81页。Aminesarecompoundsinwhichoneormorehydrogenofammoniahavebeenreplacedbyalkylgroups.Thereareprimary,secondary,andtertiaryamines.Thisclassificationdependsonhowmanyalkylgroupsarebondedtothenitrogen.

(!!!notcarbon)Nomenclatureofamines第三十七页，共81页。Thecommonnameofaamineisobtainedbycitingthenamesofthealkylgroupsbondedtothenitrogeninalphabeticalorder.Theentirenameiswrittenasoneword.

(alkylamine)e.g.第三十八页，共81页。TherearetwoIUPACapprovedwaytonameanamine.Itcanbenamedasasubstitutedalkaneusingtheprefix“amino”todesignatetheaminesubstituent.(???aminoalkane)Italsocanbeennamedwithafunctionalgroupsuffix----“amine”.The“e”attheendofthealkanenameisreplacedby“amine”.ThenamesofsubstituentsbondedtothenitrogenareprecededbyanN

(initalic)toindicatethatthesubstituentisbondedtoanitrogenratherthantoacarbon.[(N-alkyl)alkanamine]第三十九页，共81页。第四十页，共81页。Amineswithfouralkylgroupsbondedtothenitrogen-andthereforeapositivechargeonthenitrogen-arecalledquaternaryammonium

salts.Theirnamesareobtainedbycitingthenamesofthealkylgroupsinalphabeticalorderasaprefixto“ammonium”,followedbythenameofthe

counterion.

[alkylammoniumhalide

(orhydroxideetc)]第四十一页，共81页。Nomenclatureofetherssymmetricaletherandasymmetricalether.e.g.第四十二页，共81页。Thecommonnameofanetherisobtainedbycitingthenamesofthetwoalkylsubstituents(inalphabeticalorder)followedbytheword“ether”.Thesmallestethersarealmostalwaysnamedbytheircommonnames.(alkylalkyl

ether)

TheIUPACsystemnamesanetherasanalkanethatbearsanalkoxysubstituent.Alkoxysubstituentsarenamedbyremovingthe“yl”fromthenameofthealkylsubstituentandadding“oxy”.(alkoxyalkane)methoxyethoxy1-methylethoxy1,1-dimethylpropoxy第四十三页，共81页。Acarbonylgroup（羰基(tānɡjī)）isacarbondoublybondedtoanoxygenandanacylgroup（酰基）isacarbonylgroupattachedtoanalkylsubstituent.Abenzoylgroup（苯甲酰基）isacarbonylgroupattachedtoabenzenering.第四十四页，共81页。Thecommonnameofanaldehydeisthesameascarboxylicacid(derivedfromsomeLatinwords).(Latin+aldehyde)TheIUPACnameofanaldehydeisobtainedbyremovingthe“e”fromthealkanenameandadding“-al”.(alkanal)Nomenclatureofaldehydesandketones第四十五页，共81页。Ifthealdehydegroupisattachedtoaring,thealdehydeisnamedbyadding“carbaldehyde”tothenameofthering.(cycloalkanecarbaldehyde)phenylmethanal第四十六页，共81页。Commonname:Onlyafewketonshavecommonnames,suchasacetone(likealdehyde).Commonnamesarealsousedforphenyl-substitutedketones.Theyarecalledphenones.(+one)IUPACname:KetonesarenamedintheIUPACsystembyremovingthe“e”fromthealkanenameandadding“-one”.(alkanone)Derivedname:Likeethers,R-CO-R’canbenamedbycitingthenamesofthetwoalkylsubstituents(inalphabeticalorder)followedbytheword“ketone”.(alkylalkyl

ketone)Nomenclatureofketones第四十七页，共81页。CommonnameIUPACnameDerivedname第四十八页，共81页。NomenclatureofcarboxylicacidsanditsderivativesX=OH,acarboxylicacidX=halogen,anacylhalideX=OR',anesterX=OCOR',anacidanhydrideX=NRR',anamide第四十九页，共81页。Nomenclatureofcarboxylicacids

acarboxylgroup

Thefunctionalgroupofacarboxylicacidiscalledacarboxylgroup.Long-chaincarboxylicacidsarecalled“fattyacids”.

第五十页，共81页。Commonname:Carboxylicacids(<6)arefrequentlycalledbytheircommonnames.Theyarenamedbyadding“Latinprefix”before“acid”.?whatisα–carbon?

IUPACname:acarboxylicacidisnamedbyreplaceingthe“e”endingofthealkanenamewith“–oicacid”.(alkanoic

acid)Carboxylicacidsinwhichacarboxylgroupisattachedtoacycliccompoundcanbenamedbyadding“carboxylicacid”tothenameofthecycliccompound.第五十一页，共81页。benzoicacid第五十二页，共81页。NomenclatureofacylhalidesAcylhalidesarenamedbyusingtheacidnameandreplacingthe“–icacid”with“–ylhalide”(alkanoyl

halide),orbyreplacing“carboxylicacid

”with“carbonylhalide”(cycloalkanecarbonylhalide)第五十三页，共81页。benzoylchloride第五十四页，共81页。Nomenclatureofacidanhydrides?Doyouknowthemeaningof“anhydride”

R=R’,asymmetricalanhydride

R≠R’,amixedanhydride第五十五页，共81页。Symmetricalanhydridesarenamedbyusingtheacidnameandreplacing“acid”with“anhydride”,mixedanhydridesarenamedbystatingthenameofbothacidgroupsinalphabeticalorderfollowedby“anhydride”.第五十六页，共81页。Innaminganester,thenameofthegroupattachedtothe“carboxyloxygen”isstatedfirst.Thisisfollowedbythenameoftheacidwith“-icacid”replacedby“-ate”.Saltsofcarboxylicacidsarenamedinthesameway.

(R’alkyl

R

alkanoate)Nomenclatureofesters第五十七页，共81页。ethylacetate第五十八页，共81页。

AprimaryamideasecondaryamideatertiaryamideAmidesarenamedbyusingtheacidname,replacing“–oicacid”or“-icacid”with“amide”,orbyreplacing“carboxylicacid”with“carboxamide”.(alkanamide)or(cycloalkanecarboxamide)Nomenclatureofamides第五十九页，共81页。第六十页，共81页。NomenclatureofnitrilesIncommonnomenclature,nitrilesarenamedbyreplacing“–icacid”with“-onitrile”,ortheyarenamedas“alkyl

cyanide”.(alkyl

cyanide)InIUPACnomenclature,nitrilesarenamedbyadding“-nitrile”tothealkanename.(alkanenitrile)第六十一页，共81页。Alkalineearths(碱土(jiǎntǔ))Magnesium(镁)Calcium(钙)Aluminum

(铝)Tin

(锡)Lead

(铅)第六十二页，共81页。TransitionMetals:Titanium(钛)Chromium(铬)Manganese(锰)Iron(铁)Cobalt(钴)Nickle(镍)Copper(铜)Zinc(锌)Silver(银)Platinum(铂)Gold(金)Palladium(钯)第六十三页，共81页。另外必须提供微生物的生长介质必须含有诸如硫酸铵、氨水或尿素等含氮化合物，以及无机磷酸盐。此外，必需有的恒定的最佳的pH值和温度。以青霉素G为例，发酵过程在200小时后完成，细胞团块经过滤(guòlǜ)而分离。从滤液中经吸收或提取工艺而分离出所需要的活性制剂。细胞团块，如果并非目的产品，由于其高蛋白质含量，可进一步用作动物饲料。

Additionallythemicroorganismsmustbesuppliedinthegrowthmediumwithnitrogen-containingcompoundssuchasammonium

sulfate,ammonia,orurea,aswellaswithinorganicphosphates.Furthermore,constantoptimalpHandtemperaturearerequired.InthecaseofpenicillinG,thefermentationisfinishedafter200hours,andthecellmassisseparatedbyfiltration.Thedesiredactiveagentsareisolatedfromthefiltratebyabsorptionorextractionprocesses.Thecellmass,ifnotthedesiredproduct,canbefurtherusedasananimalfeedstuffowingtoitshighproteincontent.第六十四页，共81页。利用现代重组技术，已获得的微生物可以生产(shēngchǎn)原始基因中并未编码的多肽。修饰过的大肠杆菌使得产生人类胰岛素或前胰岛素原类似物的A-和B-链成为可能。经分离后再选择性形成二硫键，其最终提纯由色析（谱）工序来决定。通过这种方式，完全可以不受限制地从任意的动物胰腺原料获得人类胰岛素。

Bymodernrecombinanttechniquesmicroorganismshavebeenobtainedwhichalsoallowproductionofpeptideswhichwerenotencodedintheoriginalgenes.ModifiedE.colibacteriamakeitthuspossibletoproduceA-andB-chainsofhumaninsulinorproinsulinanalogs.Thedisulfidebridgesareformedselectivelyafterisolation，andthefinalpurificationiseffectedbychromatographicprocedures.Inthiswayhumaninsulinisobtainedtotallyindependentlyfromanypancreaticmaterialtakenfromanimals.第六十五页，共81页。其他(qítā)重要的肽，激素和酶，如人类生长激素（HGH），神经活性肽，生长抑素，干扰素，组织型纤溶酶原激活剂（TPA），淋巴因子，如钙调蛋白的钙调节剂，蛋白疫苗，以及作为诊断用单克隆抗体，也是应用这种方法合成的。

Otherimportantpeptides,hormones,andenzymes,suchashumangrowthhormone(HGH),neuroactivepeptides,somatostatin,interferons,tissueplasminogenactivator(TPA),lymphokines,calciumregulatorslikecalmodulin,proteinvaccines,aswellasmonoclonalantibodiesusedasdiagnostics,aresynthesizedinthisway.第六十六页，共81页。一个单一的微生物中所存在的酶或酶系统，可应用于控制的立体定向的和位置定向的化学反应。这个原理在类固醇化学尤其有用。在这里，我们只能提及黄体酮经微生物法的11-α-位羟基化反应制得11-α-羟基黄体酮，一个用于合成可的松（肾上腺皮质酮）的关键产品。今天(jīntiān)，分离出的酶很重要，不仅因为淀粉的酶法糖化技术的重要性以及葡萄糖异构化成果糖，而且它们在用于诊断疾病的无数检测程序和用于监测治疗的酶法分析中也很重要。

Theenzymesorenzymaticsystemswhicharepresentinasinglemicroorganismcanbeusedfordirectedstereospecificandregiospecificchemicalreactions.Thisprincipleisespeciallyusefulinsteroidchemistry.Herewemayreferonlytothemicrobiological11-α-hydroxylationofprogesteroneto11-α-hydroxyprogesterone,akeyproductusedinthesynthesisofcortisone.Isolatedenzymesareimportanttodaynotonlybecauseofthetechnicalimportanceoftheenzymaticsaccharificationofstarch,andtheisomerizationofglucosetofructose,Theyarealsosignificantinthecountlesstestproceduresusedindiagnosingillness,andinenzymaticanalysiswhichisusedinthemonitoringoftherapy.第六十七页，共81页。大量的酶本身可以作为活性成分。因此，含有蛋白酶（如糜蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶和胰蛋白酶），淀粉酶和脂肪酶的制剂产品，大多与合成的抗酸药相配合，以促进(cùjìn)消化。链激酶和尿激酶是重要的溶血栓剂，而天冬酰胺酶则用作治疗白血病中的细胞生长抑剂。

Anumberofenzymesarethemselvesusedasactiveingredients.Thuspreparationscontainingproteases(e.g.chymotrypsin,pepsin,andtrypsin),amylasesandlipases,

mostlyincombinationwithsyntheticantacids,promotedigestion.Streptokinaseandurokinaseareimportantinthrombolytics,andasparaginaseisusedasacytostaticagentinthetreatmentofleukemia.第六十八页，共81页。最后必须提到的是，酶作为生物催化剂在化学反应的重要应用，其中立体专一性和选择性可以得到应用。著名例子有酶裂解N-乙酰基-D,L-氨基酸的外消旋体而生成L-氨基酸，从苄基青霉素经青霉素酰胺酶作用生产8-氨基青霉烷酸，以及天门冬氨酸酶催化氨对富马酸立体专一性加成反应以生产L-天门冬氨酸。在这些应用中，酶可以固载的形式(xíngshì)—某种方式连接在载体上—使用，也可以杂相催化剂的形式(xíngshì)来使用。这是有利的，因为它们可以很容易从反应介质中分离，并回收再利用。

Finallymentionmustbemadeoftheimportantuseofenzymesas‘biocatalysts’inchemicalreactionswheretheirstereospecificityandselectivitycanbeused.KnownexamplesaretheenzymaticcleavageofracematesofN-acetyl-D,L-aminoacidstogiveL-aminoacids,

theproductionof8-aminopenicillanicacidfrombenzylpenicillinbymeansofpenicillinamidaseandtheaspartase-catalysedstereospecificadditionofammoniatofumaricacidinordertoproduceL-asparticacid.Intheseapplicationstheenzymescanbeusedinimmobilizedforms-somehowboundtocarriers-andsousedasheterogeneouscatalysts.Thisisadvantageousbecausetheycantheneasilybeseparatedfromthereactionmediumandrecycledforfurtheruse.第六十九页，共81页。benzylpenicillinAminopenicillanicacidpenicillinamidaseFumaricacidaspartaseL-asparticacid第七十页，共81页。另一个基于蛋白酶专一性作用的重要工艺是应用于半合成人胰岛素