语言学教程Language-and-Cognition教学文稿

ChapterSix

LanguageandCognition第一页，共112页。1.WhatisCognition?什么(shénme)是认知？Mentalprocessesofanindividual,informationprocessingMentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.2第二页，共112页。Threeapproachestothestudyoflanguageandcognition:Theformalapproach:addressesthestructuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.Thepsychologicalapproach:looksatlanguagefromtheperspectiveofgeneralcognitivesystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attentiontoreasoning.PSYCHOLOGICALLINGUISTICS心理(xīnlǐ)语言学Theconceptualapproach:addresseshowlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.COGNITIVELINGUISTICS认知语言学3第三页，共112页。2.PsycholinguisticsPsychologicalaspectsoflanguagePsychologicalstatesandmentalactivitywiththeuseoflanguageLanguageacquisition,languageproduction&comprehensionTherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought4第四页，共112页。StructurallinguisticsCognitivepsychologyAnthropologyNeurosciencesRelatedfields5第五页，共112页。Languageacquisition(L1/L2)(languagelearning,5years)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognitionSixsubjectsofresearch6第六页，共112页。2.1LanguageAcquisitionLanguageacquisition:oneofthecentraltopicsinpsycholinguisticsAllnormalhumansspeak,nononhumananimaldoes.Children’sacquisitionoflanguagehasreceivedmuchattention.Scholarskeptdiariesofchildren’sspeechfortheirresearchdata.7第七页，共112页。Chinese2months,newspaper,laugh着急(zháojí)果果班也班urinate8第八页，共112页。Firststage(fromtwomonthstoayear)Language’ssoundpatternsPhoneticdistinctionsinparents’language.One-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines.9第九页，共112页。Two-wordstage:around18monthsChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeWantcookieIwantacookieRequestMoremilkIwantsomemoremilkRequestJoeseeI(Joe)seeyouInformingMycupThisismycupWarningMommychairThischairbelongstoMWarningBigboyIamabigboyBraggingRedcarThatcarisredNamingThatcarThatisacarNaming10第十页，共112页。ChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeNosleepIdon’twanttogotosleepRefusalNottiredIamnottiredRefusalWheredoll?Whereisthedoll?QuestionTrucktableThetruckisonthetableInformingDaddyrunDaddyisrunningInformingJoepushI(Joe)pushed(thecat)InformingPushcatIpushedthecarInformingGivecandyGivemethecandyRequest11第十一页，共112页。Three-word-utterancestageGivedoggiepaper.Puttruckwindow.Tractorgofloor.12第十二页，共112页。FluentgrammaticalconversationstageEmbedoneconstituentinsideanother:Givedoggiepaper.Givebigdoggiepaper.Usemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflectioninthebeginningbutgooduse(90%)bytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.Allpartsofalllanguageareacquiredbeforethechildturnsfour.13第十三页，共112页。What’sthedifferencebetweenFLAandSLA?What’sthedifferencebetweenSLAandSLL?14第十四页，共112页。2.2LanguagecomprehensionMentallexicon:informationaboutthepropertiesofwords,retrievablewhenunderstandinglanguage(take,get,good,thing;standard)Forexample,wemayusemorphologicalrulestodecomposeacomplexwordlikerewritablethefirstfewtimesweencounteritandafterseveralexposureswemaystoreandaccessitasaunitorword.(萌)Itmeansthatfrequencyofexposuredeterminesourabilitytorecallstoredinstances.最基本最笨最实用(shíyòng)的方法；repetition15第十五页，共112页。Connectionism:readersusethesamesystemoflinksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundunitstogeneratethepronunciationsofwrittenwordsliketoveandtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwordslikestove,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns,likelove.(-tain,-ology,-meter,micro-)Similarityandfrequencyplayimportantrolesinprocessingandcomprehendinglanguage,withthenovelitemsbeingprocessedbasedontheirsimilaritytotheknownones.16第十六页，共112页。AninitialstepinunderstandinganymessageHowdowegoaboutrecognizingwords?Assoonaspeoplehearspeech,theystartnarrowingdownthepossiblewordsthattheymaybehearing.Awordisidentifiedassoonasthereisonlyonepossibilityleft.Cohorttheory:Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1990)Thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Wordrecognition17第十七页，共112页。ThisaccountisreferredtoastheCOHORTTHEORY(集群理论(lǐlùn))andhypothesizesthatauditorywordrecognitionbeginswiththeformationofagroupofwordsattheperceptionoftheinitialsoundandproceedssoundbysoundwiththecohortofwordsdecreasingasmoresoundsareperceived.18第十八页，共112页。如果这个词是“dive”，(diveintothewater)所有以[d]开始的词，如“drive,drink,date,dunk”等，都会被激活。这些激活的词构成一个“群”；这些词是在一个目标词的声学信息的基础上提取的，并没有受到其他层面的分析所影响。词辨认的第二阶段里，所有可能的信息都会影响目标词的选择，这些交互作用的信息资源(zīyuán)都起到排除那些不相似的的词的作用。例如进一步的声学/语音信息可能排除一些交股的词，如“date”和“dunk”.19第十九页，共112页。LanguageComprehension20第二十页，共112页。Factorsinvolvedinwordrecognition:Frequencyeffect(频率效应)（词频效应）:Oneofthemostimportantfactorsthataffectswordrecognitionishowfrequentlythewordisusedinagivendiscourseorcontext.FrequencyeffectdescribestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheL.better,TV,tuberculosis,protein（搞笑(ɡǎoxiào)，郁闷）21第二十一页，共112页。RECENCYEFFECTS(近期效应)（近现率）:Peoplerecognizeawordfasterwhentheyhavejusthearditorreaditthanwhentheyhavenotrecentlyencounteredit.Recencyeffectsdescribetheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.例如在奥运会期间一些体育项目成为报章杂志和人们交谈的热点(rèdiǎn)，成了高频词，辨认的阈限因而就降低。但是奥运会后，它们又慢慢降温，辨认的阈限又升高。所以近现效应实际上是动态的频率效应。（神马，浮云，此处省略，相当）22第二十二页，共112页。AnotherfactorthatisinvolvedinwordrecognitionisCONTEXT.Peoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.Thisisthevein.Thepitifulgirlcommittedsuicidebycuttingtheveinofherwrist.23第二十三页，共112页。语境可以促进词的辨认，限定词的意思，解决(jiějué)词的歧义。Reading,translating,listening(KFC)

24第二十四页，共112页。LexicalambiguityHowareambiguouswordsunderstood?Twotheories:1)Allthemeaningsassociatedwiththewordareaccessed2)Onlyone

meaningisaccessedinitially.25第二十五页，共112页。Areyouengaged?Myfrienddrovemetothebank.“Hi,Jack!”26第二十六页，共112页。Theclerk(entering):Areyouengaged?Augustus:Whatbusinessisthatofyours?However,ifyouwilltakethetroubletoreadthesocietypapersforthisweek,youwillseethatIamengagedtotheHonourableLucyPopham,youngestdaughterof...Theclerk:Thatisn’twhatImean.Canyouseeafemale?Augustus:Ofcourse,Icanseeafemaleaseasilyasamale.DoyousupposeIamblind?(GeorgeBernardShaw)27第二十七页，共112页。LanguageComprehensionAnexperiment:Whenpeopleareaskedtofinishasentence,theytakelongerwhenthefragmenttobefinishedcontainsanambiguouswordthanwhentheambiguouswordisreplacedbyanunambiguousterm.Aftertakingtherightturnattheintersection…AftertakingtheleftturnattheintersectionThisdelaysuggeststhatallmeaningsofambiguouswordsareaccessedandthattimehastobetakentodecideamongthem.28第二十八页，共112页。Otherexperimentssuggestthatundersomecircumstances,onlyonemeaningisinitiallyaccessed.Thefrequencyandcontexteffectshavebeenshowntobeimportanthere.First,ifoneofthemeaningsismuchmorefrequentthantheother,peopletendtoassumethatthewordhasthemorefrequentmeaning.ChairThesemanticcontexteffectalsoplaysasignificantpartindecidingwhichmeaningisthemostappropriate.29第二十九页，共112页。ComprehensionofsentencesOnceawordhasbeenidentified,itisusedtoconstructasyntacticstructure.Insomecasesthisisquitestraightforward.Thejealouswomanwentaway.However,therearecomplicationsduetotheambiguityofindividualwordsandtothedifferentpossiblewaysthatwordscanbefitintophrases.Sometimesthereisnowaytodeterminewhichstructureandmeaningasentencehas.30第三十页，共112页。Serialmodels(processing)Theserialmodelwouldassumeagroupofprocessestakeplaceoneatatimewithnoneoverlapping.Aserialmodeloflanguageproductionwoulddividetheprocessintothreestages:astagetodevelopthephrasestructureofthesentence,anothertoretrievethelexicalitemsthatareinsertedintothestructure,andstillanothertodeterminethecorrectpronunciationoftheselexicalitems.31第三十一页，共112页。Parallelmodel(processing)theparallelmodelreferstothecaseinwhichtwoormoreoftheprocessestakeplaceatthesametime.Thismodelemphasizesthatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.32第三十二页，共112页。Parallelmodelsdescribehowtheprocessorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatlistenersandreadersintegrategrammaticalandsituationalknowledgeinunderstandingasentence.33第三十三页，共112页。SyntacticambiguityDifferentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.Thecopsawthespywiththebinoculars.Theprepositionalphrasewiththebinocularsisambiguous.Itcaneitherbeacomplementoftheverbsee

orbepartofthenounphrase.Someambiguitiesareduetotheambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.thedeserttrains(mentobehardy,seldomrunontime)34第三十四页，共112页。Johnpaintedthecarinthegarage.35第三十五页，共112页。Maylikesthevaseonthecupboardwhichsheboughtyesterday.Thestudentswilldiscusstheirplantoholdadancingpartyintheclassroom.IknowSimonbetterthanyou.Tellmeifyouhavetime.36第三十六页，共112页。Mybrotherwasn’treadingallthetime.ThechairmanappointedMr.Brownanassistant.Thescholarwrotelongthesisandbooks.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.37第三十七页，共112页。GardenpathsentencesGARDENPATH(花园(huāyuán)小径)sentencesaresentencesthatareinitiallyinterpretedwithadifferentstructurethantheyactuallyhave.Ittypicallytakesquitealongtimetofigureoutwhattheotherstructureisifthefirstchoiceturnsouttobeincorrect.Theyhavebeen“ledupthegardenpath,”fooledintothinkingthesentencehasadifferentstructurethanithas.Thehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Themanwhohuntsducksoutonweekends.ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.38第三十八页，共112页。“花园路径现象”:Themanpushedthroughthedoorfell.大多数听者在语言处理过程的瞬间(shùnjiān)会倾向于将Themanpushedthroughthedoor理解为NP+V+PP的一个句子结构。只有当听到动词fell时，才折回头对语言输入重新进行处理。这种现象被很形象地称之为“花园路径现象”，就像在花园中走错了道，折回头再寻路径。一般认为，这类歧义现象会对语言的处理过程造成较大的困难。蒋祖康，“花园路径现象”研究综述，《外语教学与研究》2000年第4期，246-252。39第三十九页，共112页。Comprehensionofwords---comprehensionofsentences:

grammatical,structural,situational(contextual)factorswhenfromsentence----textWhatotherfactorsadded?

40第四十页，共112页。ComprehensionoftextSentencescomeintextsanddiscourses,andtheentiretextordiscourseisrelevanttothemessagesconveyed.

Readersabstractthemainthreadsofadiscourseandinfermissingconnections,constrainedbylimitationsofshort-termmemoryandguidedbylinguisticcuessignaledbythetext.

41第四十一页，共112页。Discourseinterpretation

Resonancemodel:informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.(radium,pornpicture,fish,earthquake)Schema:apre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.42第四十二页，共112页。[RESTAURANT]Schema:Entering,ordering,eatingandexiting.EnteringScene:Thecustomerentersarestaurant,looksforatable,decideswheretosit,walkstothetable…43第四十三页，共112页。Johnwentintoarestaurant.HeaskedthewaitressforPockmarkedWoman’sBeancurd.Heateit,paidthebillandleft.(perfectlyunderstandable)2.Johnwentintoarestaurant.Hesawawaitress.Hegotupandwenthome.(doesnotseemtomakesense)44第四十四页，共112页。45第四十五页，共112页。46第四十六页，共112页。刚才谈到了对于(duìyú)篇章特有的schema(对于(duìyú)事物的thoughtpattern)新东方王强letterdrowningboythevisitofthemuseum47第四十七页，共112页。2.3LanguageproductionListening,Speaking,Reading,Writing,TranslatingLanguageAcquisitionLanguageComprehensionLanguageProduction48第四十八页，共112页。Theabilitytoproducewordsisacoreingredientoftheabilitytoproducelargerutterances.Singlewordaccesshasbeenandstillisacentralresearchtopic.AccesstowordsConceptualization:whattoexpressWordselection:acompetitiveprocessMorpho-phonologicalencoding:targetwords49第四十九页，共112页。GenerationofsentencesConceptualpreparation:decidingwhattosay–aglobalplanisneededWordretrievalandapplicationofsyntacticknowledgeProcessesofsentencegenerationFunctionalplanning:assigninggrammaticalfunctionsPositionalencoding:gettingintopositionsforeachunit50第五十页，共112页。WrittenlanguageproductionSimilartospokenlanguage.Orthographicforminsteadofphonologicalform.Writershavemoretimeavailableforconceptualpreparationandplanning.51第五十一页，共112页。3.CognitiveLinguisticsCognitivelinguistics:AnewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflanguageItisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.

52第五十二页，共112页。3.1Construal识解（方法(fāngfǎ)）Construal:theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways53第五十三页，共112页。1）Attention/salience注意(zhùyì)∕突显Inperception,wecandirectourattentiontowardspartsoftheperceivedscenery.Incognition,ithastodowiththeactivationofconceptualstructures.Weactivatethemostrelevantconceptsmorethanconceptsthatareirrelevanttowhatweare“thinkingabout”.Wedrovealongtheroad.Sheranacrosstheroad.Theworkersdugthroughtheroad.54第五十四页，共112页。a.Hecleanedthewindow.b.Heopenedthewindow.a.I’vebrokenthewindow.b.Astonehasbrokenthewindow.55第五十五页，共112页。2）Judgment/Comparison判断(pànduàn)∕比较Figure/Ground图形∕背景Wehavetojudgesomethingbycompareitwithsomethingelse.Thisisafundamentalcognitivecapacity.Figure-groundorganizationThegroundseemstobeplacedbehindthefigureextendinginthebackground.Thefigureisthusmoreprominent,orevenmoreinteresting,thantheground.56第五十六页，共112页。Figure-ground57第五十七页，共112页。Figure-groundalsoseemstoapplytoourperceptionofmovingobjects.Inordertodistinguishbetweenstationaryanddynamicfigure-groundrelations,somecognitivelinguists(egRonaldLangacker)usethetermtrajector（射体）foramovingfigureandlandmark（界标(jièbiāo)）forthegroundofamovingfigure.58第五十八页，共112页。There’sacat[figure]onthemat[ground]Therearestillsomepeanuts[figure]inthebag[ground]Thespacecraft[figure]washoveringoverMetropolis[ground]59第五十九页，共112页。Thebird[trajector]wingeditswayoutthewindow[landmark]We[trajector]wentacrossthefield[landmark]I[trajector]’mgoingtoLondon[landmark]60第六十页，共112页。3）Perspective∕Situatedness视角(shìjiǎo)∕观察者位置Perspective：thewayinwhichweviewasceneintermsofoursituatedness61第六十一页，共112页。Thetreeisbehindtheman.Themanisinfrontofthetree.62第六十二页，共112页。Thetreeisinfrontoftheman.Themanisbehindthetree.63第六十三页，共112页。History:DifferentPerspectivesatdifferentsituationsYang,Columbus,汉语(Hànyǔ)也是这样flatteringthespouselasardance64第六十四页，共112页。3.2Categorization（范畴(fànchóu)化）TheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferencesAmajoringredientinthecreationofhumanknowledgeAllowsustorelatepresentexperiencestopastonesThreelevels:basiclevelsuperordinatelevelsubordinatelevel65第六十五页，共112页。Basiclevel Superordinatelevel

Animal

Horse Dog Cat

Chihuahua German dachshund

shepherd

Subordinatelevel

Verticalorganization66第六十六页，共112页。3.3ImageSchema（意象(yìxiàng)图式）Johnson,Mark.1987.Thebodyinthemind:Thebodilybasisofmeaning,imagination,andreason.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.67第六十七页，共112页。Animage-schemaisa“skeletal”mentalrepresentationofarecurrentpatternofembodiedexperience.Theyarehighlyschematicrepresentationsofperceptuallygroundedexperience.Theyemergefromourembodiedinteractionswiththeworld.68第六十八页，共112页。Center-peripheryschema

（中央(zhōngyāng)—边缘图式）Involvesacoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore.Examples(English):ThestructureofanappleAnindividual’sperceptualsphereAnindividual’ssocialsphere,withfamilyandfriendsatthecoreandothershavingdegreesofperipherality69第六十九页，共112页。EnglishPekingOperaWhatfactorsinfluencetheschemamost?Personalexperience,familybackground,socialrelationships,perceptualsphere(cabbage)70第七十页，共112页。对语言的认知图式道理(dàoli)和对事物一样Vocabulary(life,Iamdonetoday.)class71第七十一页，共112页。Containmentschema

（容器(róngqì)图式）Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundaryenclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.

72第七十二页，共112页。Bodilyexperience:humanbodiesascontainers.Structuralelements:interior,boundary,exteriorsyntactictransferinSLApowerplantTheshipiscomingintoview.She’sdeepinthought.Westoodinsilence.73第七十三页，共112页。Cycleschema（循环(xúnhuán)图式）Involvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludesthefollowing:AstartingpointAprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktrackingAreturntotheinitialstateTheschemaoftenhassuperimposedonitastructurethatbuildstowardaclimaxandthengoesthroughareleaseordecline.74第七十四页，共112页。Examples(English)DaysWeeksYearsSleepingandwakingBreathingCirculationEmotionalbuildupandrelease对于(duìyú)语言学习cycling,repetition75第七十五页，共112页。Linkschema（连接(liánjiē)图式）Consistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andthebondbetweenthem.

EntityA EntityB76第七十六页，共112页。Examples(English):classroomfather语言(yǔyán)同理motherBaodingAcausal“connection”Kinship“ties”77第七十七页，共112页。Part-wholeschema

（部分—整体(zhěngtǐ)图式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.Examples(English):Physical:Thebodyanditspartsbignose78第七十八页，共112页。Pathschema（路径(lùjìng)图式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.79第七十九页，共112页。Examples(English):Physical:Paths;Metaphorical:Thepurpose-as-physical-goalmetaphor,asexpressedinthefollowingsentences:Tomhasgonealongwaytowardchanginghispersonality.Youhavereachedthemidpointofyourflighttraining.She'sjuststartingouttomakeherfortune.Janewassidetrackedinhersearchforself-understanding.80第八十页，共112页。Verticalityschema（垂直(chuízhí)图式）Involves“up”and“down”relations.Examples:StandinguprightClimbingstairsViewingaflagpoleWatchingwaterriseinatub81第八十一页，共112页。Forceschema（力量(lìliɑng)图式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.Itincludesthefollowingelements:AsourceandtargetoftheforceAdirectionandintensityoftheforceApathofmotionofthesourceand/ortargetAsequenceofcausation82第八十二页，共112页。Examples(English):Physical:GravityStructuralelements:force,path,entity,etc.Interaction,directionality,causalityCompulsionCounterforce83第八十三页，共112页。Scaleschema（刻度(kèdù)图式）Involvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount,andconsistsofanyofthefollowing:Aclosed-oropen-ended progressionofamountApositionintheprogression ofamountOneormorenormsofamountAcalibrationofamount84第八十四页，共112页。Examples:PhysicalamountsPropertiesinthenumbersystemEconomicentitiessuchassupplyanddemand85第八十五页，共112页。3.4MetaphorGeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980).MetaphorsWeLiveBy.UniversityofChicagoPress.86第八十六页，共112页。ConceptualMetaphorTheory

（概念隐喻(yǐnyù)理论）Metaphorsareactuallycognitivetoolsthathelpusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheworldaroundus.Metaphorisaconceptualmapping,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother,notfromawordtoanother.87第八十七页，共112页。Targetdomain-whatisactuallybeingtalkedabout.Sourcedomain-thedomainusedasabasisforunderstandingtargetXisY.一个概念(gàiniàn)解释另一个概念(gàiniàn)Targetdomain(X) Sourcedomain(Y)RATIONALARGUMENTWAR88第八十八页，共112页。Wearewastingourtimehere.(spending)基于Timeismoney.用源域中的“金钱(jīnqián)”来识解（解释，说明）目标域中的概念“时间”TosomeextentChinaisbroughtupbytheYellowRiver.Thestudentsarethirstyforeverydropofknowledgefromtheteacher.89第八十九页，共112页。Therearethreecategoriesofconceptualmetaphors:Ontologicalmetaphors本体性隐喻(yǐnyù)Structuralmetaphors结构性隐喻(yǐnyù)Orientationalmetaphors方位性隐喻(yǐnyù)90第九十页，共112页。(1)OntologicalmetaphorsHumanexperienceswithphysicalobjectsprovidethebasisforwaysofviewingevents,activities,emotions,ideas,etc.,asentitiesandsubstances.实体性隐喻是指人类以自身经验和生理实体为基础，把事件，行为，情感，思想等抽象概念(chōuxiànɡɡàiniàn)转换为实体。91第九十一页，共112页。比如说我们描述“事业成功,富有”这个抽象概念，可以通过(tōngguò)“工资”这个名词做实体隐喻，如：Hissalaryenableshimtosupportthewholefamily.Hissalarydwarfshispeersinthesamefield.Hisfriendsarequitejealousofhissalary.92第九十二页，共112页。Example:通过“通货膨胀”实体隐喻，描述涨价这个抽象概念(chōuxiànɡɡàiniàn)或经验INFLATIONISANENTITYa.Inflationisloweringourstandardofliving.b.Ifthereismuchmoreinflation,we’llneversurvive.c.Weneedtocombatinflation.d.Inflationisbackingusintoacorner.e.Inflationmakesmesick.93第九十三页，共112页。思考题：“学习(xuéxí)进步（progressinacademicstudies)”94第九十四页，共112页。(2)StructuralmetaphorsProvideshighlystructured,clearlydelineatedsourcedomaintostructuretargetdomain根据(gēnjù)源域中的概念去构建目标域中的概念，根据(gēnjù)源域中概念的特质可以写出不同层次的句子来描述目标域中的概念，而这个词本身不见得出现在句子中（区别于实体隐喻）如：争论是战争Argumentiswar.95第九十五页，共112页。Example:ARGUMENTISWARYourclaimsareindefensible.Heattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument.Hiscriticismswererightontarget.Idemolishedhisargument.I’veneverwonanargumentwithhim.Youdisagree?OK,shoot!Ifyouusethatstrategy,he’llwipeyouout.Heshotdownallofmyarguments.96第九十六页，共112页。思考题：根据Timeismoney.做一些结构(jiégòu)隐喻的句子97第九十七页，共112页。(3)OrientationalmetaphorsGivesaconceptaspatialorientationCharacterizedbyaco-occurrenceinourexperienceGroundedinanexperientialbasis,whichlinktogetherthetwopartsofthemetaphor98第九十八页，共112页。Forexample,MOREISUPThismetaphorisgroundedintheco-occurrenceoftwodifferentkindsofexperiences:addingmoreofasubstance,andperceivingthelevelofthesubstancerise.多是向上：物质数量的增加(zēngjiā)和物质水平的增长99第九十九页，共112页。Examples:HAPPYISUP;SADISDOWNThatboostedmyspiritsI’mfeelingdownMyspiritsrose.Thinkingaboutheralwaysgivesmealift.Heisreallyinalowmoodthesedays.CONSCIOUSISUP;UNCONSCIOUSISDOWNWakeupHefellasleep100第一百页，共112页。3.5Metonymy（转喻）Itisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle,providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget,withinthesamedomain.Thereferencepointactivatesthetarget.转喻映射原则：转喻主要指在同一(tóngyī)认知域中用较易感知的部分来理解整体或者整体的另一部分，例如人们常以一个范畴中的典型成员来理解整个范畴。101第一百零一页，共112页。Twogeneralconceptualconfigurations:wholeICManditspart(s)partsofanICM.(1)WholeICManditspart(s)(i)Thing-and-PartICM,whichmayleadto twometonymicvaria