《语言学》复习提纲

语言学复习提纲期末考试题型介绍基本题型：名词解释、填空、选择、判断正误、分析问答考试范围：ChapterIIntroductionChapterIIPhonologyChapterIIIMorphologyChapterIVSyntaxChapterVSemanticsChapterVIPragmaticsChapterVIIILanguageandSociety分数比列：名词解释（15%）填空（35%）（其中元音与辅音的识别10%，构词法10%，其它填空15%）选择（20%）判断正误（10%）分析与问答（20%）重要知识点需要识记的术语：(大家可以通过合作快速整理出一个术语表)ChapterI.Introduction:arbitrary,creativity,duality,displacement,culturaltransmissionChapterII.PhonologythemainprinciplesofIPA,articulatoryphonetics,narrowtranscription,broadtranscription,diacritic,ChapterIII.MorphemeMorpheme,morph,allomorph,derivationalmorpheme,inflectionalmorphemeChapterIV.SyntaxXPrule,phraseelements,deepstructure,surfacestructure,transformationalrule,ChapterV.Semanticssense,reference,majorsenserelations,componentialanalysis,predicationanalysisChapterVI.Pragmaticslocutionaryact,illocutionaryact,perlocutionaryact,cooperationprincipleChapterVIII.LanguageandSocietyspeechcommunity,sociolect,Idiolect,diaglossia需要理解和运用的语言研究方法；ChapterI.Introduction理解历时（diachromic）/共时（synchronic）语言学研究方法ChapterIV.Syntax运用树状结构图（treediagram）分析句子ChapterV.Semantics理解如何通过成分分析法（componentialanalysis）分析词汇语意理解如何通过述谓结构分析法（predicationanalysis）分析句子语意ChapterVI.Pragmatics能够利用言语行为理论（speechacttheory）分析语言现象能够利用格莱斯的合作性原则（cooperativeprinciple）分析会话含义（conversationalimplicature）复习方法1.把握全局：建议大家通过教材目录回顾这学期学习的主要内容。2.梳理要点：通过阅读下面的《语言学》提纲，掌握每一章节的重点内容。3.重点识记：结合提纲和重要知识点，快速阅读书中每一章节。做好复习笔记的同时，每章结束后，试着列出要点,并按照逻辑进行识记。4.强化运用：对于需要理解和运用的语言研究方法要在理解的基础上对相关语言现象进行分析。《语言学》提纲Chapter1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticsWhatislanguage?languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.FeaturesofhumanlanguageCreativityLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.DualityLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.ArbitrarinessTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.DisplacementThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.CulturaltransmissionCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.Whatislinguistics?BranchesoflinguisticsInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionsPragmaticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsFeaturesoflinguisticsDescriptiveDealingwithspokenlanguageSynchronicChapter2PhoneticsandPhonologyWhatisphonetics?Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.Sub-branchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsAuditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundsThespeechorgansWheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?FromthelungWhatisthefunctionofvocalcords?ControllingtheairstreamWhatarethecavities?OralcavityPharyngealcavityNasalcavityTranscriptionofspeechsoundsUnitsofrepresentationSegments(theindividualsounds)PhoneticsymbolsThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.DescriptionofspeechsoundsDescriptionofEnglishconsonantsGeneralfeature:obstructionCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionPlacesofarticulationMannersofarticulationVoicingofarticulationPlacesofarticulationThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]Labiodental:[f][v]Interdental:[][]Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]Palatal:[][][t][d][j]Velar:[k][g][]Glottal:[h]MannersofarticulationThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.Stops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricatives:[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]Affricates:[t][d]Liquids:[l][r]Glides:[w][j]Nasals:[m][n][]VoicingofarticulationThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.VoicedsoundsVoicelesssoundsDescriptionofEnglishvowelsGeneralfeature:withoutobstructionCriteriaofvoweldescriptionPartofthetonguethatisraisedFrontCentralBackExtenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalateHighMidLowTenseorLaxTensevowel[i:][u:][o:]Laxvowel[i][u][o]KindofopeningmadeatthelipsPositionofthesoftpalateSinglevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongsWhatisphonology?Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.PhonemesandallophonesAphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution–phonemesIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.Complementarydistribution–allophonesSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.FreevariationIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.PhonologicalrulesPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_SyllablestructureAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.SequenceofphonemesNativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogether.SomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish.Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.Sequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalgaps.Whennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.SuprasegmentalfeaturesFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.StressStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.Stressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.IntonationWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.ToneToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Chapter4MorphologyWhatismorphology?Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.Morphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.MorphemesandallomorphsThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.Somecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.Someverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.FreeandboundmorphemesSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).InflexionalandderivationalmorphemesInflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.Englishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Somelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.Theprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.Conclusion:classificationofmorphemesMorphemesFreemorphemesBoundmorphemesInflexionalDerivational:affixesPrefixesSuffixesFormationofnewwordsDerivationDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.Derivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.CompoundingCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.Incompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.Themeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.ConversionConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.ClippingClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.ClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.Someclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.BlendingBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).Back-formationBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.AcronymsandabbreviationsAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.CoinageCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.Thiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.Formoredetailedexplanationtothewaysofwordformation,seemynotesofPracticalEnglishGrammar.Chapter4SyntaxWhatissyntax?ThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or“settingouttogether”.Traditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflexions,arearrangedtoshowconnexionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatanalyzesthestructureofsentences.Whatisasentence?Syntaxistheanalysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.TraditionalgrammarIntraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassifiedintopartsofspeech.Sentencesareanalyzedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:subjects,objects,verbs(predicates),predicatives,…Compulsoryelementsofasentence:subject,verb,object,complement,adverbial…Nouns:number,case,gender…Verbs:tense,aspect,voice…Adjectivesandadverbs:comparativeandsuperlativedegreesAgreementinnumber/person/genderParsing:tryingtomakedetailedanalysisinstructureStructuralgrammarImmediateconstituent(IC)analysisStructuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofanalysis.Asentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentanalysis.Examples:Oldmenandwomen:old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomenThe|||little||girl|speaks||French.Inthisway,sentencestructureisanalyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inotherwords,ICanalysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.Iwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.TwoadvantagesofICanalysis:Itcananalyzesomeambiguities.Itshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence..SyntacticcategoriesNounPhrase(NP)VerbPhrase(VP)Sentence(S)Determiner(Det)Adjective(Adj)Pronoun(Pro)Verb(V)AuxiliaryVerb(Aux)PrepositionalPhrase(PP)Adverb(Adv)Phrasestructure(PS)rulesTreediagramsTransformationalrules(T-rules)Surfacestructureanddeepstructure(c.f.57)Chapter5SemanticsWhatissemantics?Semanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.However,itisnottheonlylinguisticdisciplinethatstudiesmeaning.Semanticsanswersthequestion“whatdoesthissentencemean”.Inotherwords,itistheanalysisofconventionalmeaningsinwordsandsentencesoutofcontext.ReferenceandsenseLinguisticexpressionsstandinarelationtotheworld.Therearetwoaspectsofmeaning.Referenceistherelationbywhichawordpicksoutoridentifiesanentityintheworld.Butthereferentialtheoryfailstoaccountforcertainkindsoflinguisticexpression.Somewordsaremeaningful,buttheyidentifynoentitiesintherealworld,suchasthewordsdragon,phoenix,unicorn,andmermaid.Itisnotpossibleforsomewordstofindreferentintheworld,suchasthewordsbut,and,of,however,the,etc.SpeakersofEnglishunderstandthemeaningofaroundtrianglealthoughthereisnosuchgraph.Senseistherelationbywhichwordsstandinhumanmind.Itismentalrepresentation,theassociationwithsomethinginthespeaker’sorhearer’smind.Thestudyofmeaningfromtheperspectiveofsenseiscalledtherepresentationalapproach.ClassificationoflexicalmeaningsReferentialmeaning(denotativemeaning)–centralmeaningofwords,stable,universalAssociativemeaning–meaningthathingesonreferentialmeaning,lessstable,moreculture-specificConnotativemeaning–thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,embracesthepropertiesofthereferent,peripheralSocialmeaning(stylisticmeaning)–whatisconveyedaboutthesocialcircumstancesoftheuseofalinguisticexpressionAffectivemeaning–whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingorattitudeofthespeaker/writertowardswhatisreferredtoReflectedmeaning–whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpressionTaboosCollocativemeaning–theassociatedmeaningawordacquiresinlinewiththemeaningofwordswhichtendtoco-occurwithitLexicalsenserelationsSynonymyAntonymyHomonymyPolysemyHyponymyComponentialanalysisComponentialanalysisistheapproachthatanalyzewordmeaningbydecomposingitintoitsatomicfeatures.Itshowsthesemanticfeaturesofaword.Examples:Man:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULTBoy:+HUMAN+MALE–ADULTFather:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT→PARENTDaughter:+HUMAN–MALE0ADULT←PARENTSententialsenserelations–semanticrelationsofsentences(c.f.textbookP77)Analysisofmeaning(c.f.79)ComponentialanalysisPredicationanalysisChapter6PragmaticsWhatispragmatics?Pragmaticscanbedefinedastheanalysisofmeaningincontext.Pragmaticanalysisofmeaningisfirstandforemostconcernedwiththestudyofwhatiscommunicatedbyaspeaker/writerandinterpretedbyalistener/reader.Analysisofintentionalmeaningnecessarilyinvolvestheinterpretationofwhatpeopledothroughlanguageinaparticularcontext.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthetwolinguisticstudiesofmeaning–semanticsandpragmatics?SpeechactsInlinguisticcommunication,peopledonotmerelyexchangeinformation.Theyactuallydosomethingthroughtalkingorwritinginvariouscircumstances.Actionsperformedviaspeakingarecalledspeechacts.PerformativesentencesImplicitperformatives–It’scoldhere.Explicitperformatives–Pleaseclosethedoor.TypesofspeechactsLocutionaryspeechact–theactionofmakingthesentenceIllocutionaryspeechact–theintentionsPerlocutionaryspeechact–theeffectsOfthesedimensions,themostimportantis