英语教学法教程考研笔记

Unit1languageandlanguageteachingWhatmakesagoodlanguageteacher?EthicdevotionProfessionalqualitiesPersonalstyles2.Viewsonlanguagelearningandlearningingeneral:Process-orientedtheories:concernedwithhowthemindorganizesnewinformationsuchashabitformation,induction,makinginference,hypothesistestingandgeneralization.Condition-orientedtheories:emphasizethenatureofthehumanandphysicalcontextinwhichthelanguagelearningtakeplace,suchasthenumberofthestudentsandthekindofinputlearnersreceive,andtheatmosphere.Howcanonebecomealanguageteacher?Itinvolvesmorefactorsandlongerlearningtime,andmayneverbefinished.other'sexperiencelanguagereceiveddevelopmentknowledgeownexperienceStage1

PracticeReflectioProfessionalcompetenceStage2GoalStage1:allEnglishteachersaresupposedtohaveasoundcommandofEnglish.Stage2:learning,practiceandreflection.Learning:Learningfromothers’experience(empiricalknowledgegainedthroughreadingandobservation)Learningthereceivedknowledge(languagelearningtheories,educationalpsychology,languageteachingmethodology,etc.)PracticePre-servicepractice(pseudopractice)RealclassroompracticeReflection:takeonreflectionseriouslyandkeepreflectionGoal:(donothaveanend)onecanneverbecomeaperfectteacher.Thereisalwaysroomforimprovement.Unit2communicativeprinciplesandtask-basedlanguageteachingWhatiscommunicativecompetenceLinguisticcompetenceKnowledgeoflanguageitselfPragmaticcompetenceThechoiceofthevocabularyandstructuredependsonthesetting,therelativestatusofthespeakersandtheirrelationship.DiscoursecompetenceTheabilitytounderstandortoexpressatopiclogicallyandcoherentlybyeffectivelyemployingorcomprehendingthecohesivemarks,suchasfirst,second.StrategiccompetenceSearchingforothermeansofexpression,suchasusingasimilarphraseFluencytheabilitytolinkunitsofspeechtogetherwithfacilityandwithoutstrainorinappropriateslownessorunduehesitation)CLT:communicativelanguageteaching2.PrinciplesofcommunicativelanguageteachingCommunicationprincipleActivitiesthatinvolverealcommunicationpromotelearning.TaskprincipleActivitiesinwhichlanguageisusedforcarryingoutmeaningfultaskspromotelearning.MeaningfulnessprincipleLanguagethatismeaningfultothelearnersupportthelearningprocess.MainfeaturesofcommunicativeactivitiesCommunicativepurposeTheremustbesomeinformationgapthatstudentsseektobridgeCommunicativedesireArealneedtocommunicateContentnotformTheymusthavesomemassagetheywanttocommunicateVarietyoflanguageNoteacherinterventionNomaterialcontrolTBLT:task-basedlanguageteachingFourcomponentsofataskApurposeMakesurestudentshaveareasonforundertakingthetaskAcontextThiscanbereal,simulatedorimaginary,andinvolvessociolinguisticissuessuchasthelocationandtherelationshipofthespeakerAprocessGettingstudentstolearnsomelanguagestrategiessuchasproblemsolving,reasoningAproduct5.Focusonindividuallanguageitems–Purposefulandcontextualizedcommunication+ThenExercise→task6.TBL:Pre-taskIntroductiontotopicandtaskTaskcycleTaskPlanningReportStudentsheartaskrecordingorreadtextAnalysisandpracticeReviewandrepeattaskPPPPresentationOfsinglenewitem;teachersintroducesnewvocabularyandgrammaticalstructures.PracticeOfnewitem:drills,exercise,anddialogueProductionActivity,roleplayortasktoencourage‘free’useoflanguage8.HowtodesigntasksThinkaboutstudents’

needsandinterestsandabilitiesBrainstormpossibletasksEvaluatethelistChoosethelanguageitemsPreparingmaterials9.ConstrainsofCLT:WhetheritwillmeettheneedsoflearnersfromdifferentcontextsItisverydifficulttodesignaonetoonecorrespondencebetweenafunctionaform.10.ConstrainsofTBLTNoteffectiveforpresentingnewlanguagesTimeislimited:teachersarebusyCultureoflearning:somestudentsmayfinditdifficulttoadapttoTBLTLevelofdifficulty:studentsmayfindtask-baselanguageteachingquitedifficultoftheydonothavesufficientlinguisticresources.Unit4lessonplanningWhyislessonplanningimportant?Itcanmaketeachersawareoftheaimsandlanguagecontentsofthelesson.Ithelpsteachersdistinguishthevariousstagesofalessonandseetherelationshipbetweenthemsothatactivitiesofdifferentdifficultylevelscanbearrangedproperlyandthelessoncanmovesmoothlyfromonestagetoanother.Itgivesteachersopportunitytoanticipatepotentialproblemsthatmayariseinclass,andpreparesomesolutionstothem.Itbuildsteachers’confidenceinclass.Teacherscanalsobeawareofteachingaidsinclass.Planningisagoodpracticeandsignofprofessionalism.Principlesforgoodclassplanning:AimItmeansrealisticgoalsforthelesson;thethingsstudentsareabletodoattheendoftheclass.VarietyPlanningavarietyofdifferentactivitiestointroduceawideselectionofmaterials,sothatlearningisalwaysinteresting.FlexibilityPreparingsomeextraandalternativeactivitiesandtasksastheclassdoesnotalwaysgoaccordingtotheplan.LearnabilityThecontentsandtasksplannedforthelessonshouldbewithinthelearningcapabilityofthestudents.LinkageThestepsandstepsineachstageareplannedinsuchawaythattheyaresomewaylinkedwithanotherone.MacroplanningAplanningoveralongerperiodoftime,forinstanceawhole-yearcourse.Itisoftendonebyagroupofteacherswhoaretoteachthesamecourse.KnowingabouttheprofessionWhichlanguageareaandlanguagestageshouldbetaught?KnowingabouttheinstitutionTheinstitutionarrangementsofthetime,frequencyoftheclassKnowingaboutthelearnersKnowingaboutthesyllabusKnowingaboutthetextbookKnowingabouttheobjectivesComponentsofalessonplanBackgroundinformationWhothestudentsare.Thetimeanddateoftheclass.TeachingaimsWhatstudentsareabletoachieveattheendofthelesson(Linguisticandlanguageskills)LanguagecontentsandskillsStagesandproceduresTeachingaidsTeachingaidsandresources,andhowteacherswillusethemtoaidlearningEndoflessonsummaryTakesometimetosummarizewhatislearnedinclass.OptionalactivitiesandassignmentsAfterlessonreflectionUnit5classroomarrangementEfficientclassroomarrangementcanbeachievedwhenthesesixconditionsaremet:Theteacherplaysappropriateroles.TheteacherprovidesclearinstructionsStudentsaregroupedinawaysuitableforthelearningactivities.Theteacherasksappropriatequestions.Thereisdisciplineaswellasharmonyintheclass.Thestudents’errorsaretreatedproperly.Thedifferentrolesofteachers:Theteachercontrolsthepacesothattheactivitiesrunsmoothlyandefficiently.Themorecommunicativetheactivityis,thelesscontrolitneeds.AssessorCorrectingmistakesOrganizingfeedbackOrganizerDesignandorganizethetasksPrompterWhenstudentsarenotsurehowtostartanactivity,orwhattodonext,theteachergiveappropriateprompts.and(/anythingelse?/yes,butwhy?)ParticipantResource-provider3.Rulestofollowformakinginstructionseffective:Tousesimpleinstructionsandmakethemsuitthecomprehensionlevelofthestudents.(Also,makeyourcommentsassimpleandasnaturalaspossible)Tousemothertongueonlywhenit’snecessary.Thebestthingtodoistomodelthetask/activitybeforelettingstudentsmoveintogroupsandpairs.Demonstrationismoreeffectivethanwords.Studentgrouping:Wholeclasswork:Advantages:Everyonefeelsbeingtogetherwithothers.Itisgoodforteacherstoinstructionandexplanationtogether,andalsoanidealwaytoshowmaterialsanddopresentationtogether.Disadvantages:Individualityisnotfavouredinthissense.Noteveryonehasanopportunitytoexpresshimself.Somestudentsfeelnervousandanxiouswhentheyareaskedtopresentinfrontofclass.Itfavorsthetransmissionofknowledgefromteachertostudentsratherthanstudentsdiscoveringthingsbythemselves.Itisnotagoodwaytoenhancerealcommunication.Studentscannotcommunicatewithothersinthissense.PairworkAdvantages?Itdramaticallyincreasestudents’speakingtimeinclass.Itallowsstudentstoworktogetherratherthanunderteachers’guidance.Itallowsteacherstoworkwiththeweakpairswhenothersareworkingontheirown.Itcanpromotecooperationbetweenstudents.DisadvantagesItisoftenverynoisyandteachersareafraidoflosingcontroloftheclass.Somestudentsmaytalkinnativelanguageorsomethingnotrelatedtothetopic.Itisnotveryeasyforteacherstomonitoreverypair.Somestudentsmaynotliketoworkwithpeers,andthey,thinktheycanonlylearnfromtheirteachers.Sotheyrefusetoparticipateintheactivities.?Thechoiceofpairisaproblem.Somestudentsdon’tliketoworkwithaparticularpartnerwhilesomeonemaydominateallthetime.GroupworkingSomegroupsmayfinishthetaskfastwhilesomemaybeveryslow.Teachersmayhavetopreparesomeoptionalactivitiesforthequickgroupandbereadytohelptheslowergroupsallthetime.IndividualstudyTeachersneedtopreparedifferenttasksfordifferentgroups.Measuresfordisciplinedactsandbadlybehavingstudents:ActingimmediatelyIndisciplinedactsshouldbeimmediatelystopped,sothatlessdamageismade.StoptheclassIfthedisciplineissodisruptiveastohindertheprogressofthewholeclass,theteachershouldstoptheclassandmakeitclearwhatiswrong.RearrangetheseatsChangetheactivityTalktostudentsafterclassCreateacodeofbehaviorTheteachersandlearnerscanworktogethertocreatesomerulesfortheclassduringactivities.6.QuestioninginclassroomDisplayquestions:questionsthatarealreadyknowntoteachersandtheyareaskingquestionstocheckifstudentsknowtheanswer.Genuinequestions:questionsthatareusedtofindnewinformation.Theyareoftenmorecommunicative.Lower-orderquestions:questionsthatsimplyrequirerecallingofinformationormemorizationoffacts.Higher-orderquestions:questionsrequiringmorereasoning,analysis,andevaluation.7.Dealingwitherrors:Dealingwithspokenerrors:Ifthetaskisnotfocusingonaccuracyorfluency,ignoreit.Whentocorrect:Itisbestnottointerruptstudentsduringfluencywork,unlesscommunicationbreaksdown.Iftherearesomecommonmistakesthatotherstudentsmightalsohaveproblemswith,theteachercantakeanoteinhis/hermindandtrytodothecorrectionafterthestudent’sperform.Howtocorrect:Self-correctingisencouraged.?Indirectcorrection:repeating;askingotherstudentstoansweragainUnit6teachingpronunciations1.TheroleofteachingpronunciationStudentsneednotabletoreadandwriteIPAandtoknowphonetics.Adultlearnersneedfocusonpronunciations,butyoungleanersdonLearnerswhohavemoreexposuretoEnglishneedlessfocusonpronunciationthanthosewhoonlylearnEnglishintheclass.

’t.2.Realisticgoalofteachingpronunciation:Consistency:thepronunciationshouldbesmoothandnatural.Intelligibility:thepronunciationshouldbeunderstandabletothelisteners.Communicativeefficiency:thepronunciationshouldhelpconveythemeaningthatisintendedbythespeaker.Focusingonasound:SaythesoundaloneGetstudentstorepeatthesoundinchorus.Getindividualstudentstorepeatthesound.Explainhowtomakethesound.Ifstudentscanproducethesoundcorrectly,aftertheteachernotnecessarytoexplain‘how’.Saythesoundinaword.Contrastitwithothersounds.

’smodelling,Perceptionpractice:Usingminimalpairs:will-welltill-tellfill-felllid-led(tellwhichoneisread)Whichorder_ate_ate_ate_ate_ate_ate(latematefatedatehaterate

)Productionpractice:ListeningandrepeatFillintheblanksChildrenlovetoplaygames.Blackandwhitemakegray.AfterAprilcomesMay.MakeupsentencesLastfastcalmdarkMakingasentenceusingasmanyfromthegivenwords.UsemeaningfulcontextUsingpictureUsetonguetwistersPracticingstress:Usinggestures:Byclappinghandsorusinganarmmovementsasifconductingmusic.Usethevoice:RaisethevoicetoindicatestressUsetheblackboard:Highlightthestresspartsbyunderliningthemorwritingthemontheblackboard.Unit7.TeachinggrammarDifferentwaystopresentinggrammarThedeductivemethodItteachesgrammarasanisolateoneLittleattentionispaidtomeaningPracticeismoremechanicalAdvantages:Itcanbesuccessfulwithselectedandmotivatedstudents.Itcouldsavetimewhenstudentsareconfrontedwithgrammarrulewhichiscomplexbutwhichhastolearn.Theteacherprovidestudentswithauthenticlanguagedateandinducesthelearnerstorealizegrammarruleswithoutanyformofexplicitexplanation.Studentsaretoapplythenewlypresentedstructuretoproducesentenceswithgivenvisualaidsorverbalprompts.Theteachermayelicitthegrammarrulefromthestudents.Studentsareinducedtodiscovertherulesbythemselvesbutcarefullyguidedandassistedbytheteacher.ImplicitknowledgeandexplicitknowledgeImplicitknowledge:knowledgethatisunconsciouslyexistedinourmind,whichwecanmakeuseofautomaticallywithoutmakinganyeffort.Explicitknowledge:ourconsciousknowledgeaboutthelanguage.SuccessfulpracticePre-learningPracticeismoreeffectivewhennewlanguageisclearlyperceivedandtakenintoshort-termmemorybytheleaners.VolumeandrepetitionThemorelanguagetheleanersareexposedtoorperceivedthemoretheyarelikelytolearn.Success-orientation:Heterogeneity(异质性)Practiceshouldbeabletoelicitdifferentsentencesandgeneratedifferentlevelsofanswersfromdifferentlearners.TeacherassistanceInterestGrammarpractice:Mechanicalpractice?SubstitutiondrillsMrs.Greenhasthelargesthouseintown.(cleanhouse/greenlawn/prettygarden)TransformationdrillsChangethefollowingsentenceintopasttense.NowhelivesinLondon.(lastyear.Paris)Meaningful/communicativepracticeRanktheitemsontheleftcolumnaccordingtothelistedonthetop.cheaphealthytastyImportantBeerWaterFruitcigarettesEg.Ithinkbeerischeaperthanfruit.Usingpromptsforpractice:UsingpicturepromptsUsingmimes(roleplay)orgesturesaspromptsUsinginformationsheetaspromptsUsingkeyphraseorkeywordsaspromptsUsingchainedphrasesforstorytelling.Unit8teachingvocabularyWhatdoesknowingawordinvolve?KnowingitspronunciationandstressKnowingitsspellingandgrammaticalpropertiesKnowingitsmeaningHowandwhentouseittoexpresstheintendedmeaningAccordingtoHedge,vocabularylearninginvolvesatleasttwoaspectofmeaning:Understandingdenotationandconnotativemeaning:DenotationmeaningItrefertothosewordsthatweusetolabelthingsasregardsrealobjects,suchasanameorasign.ConnotativemeaningItreferstotheattitudesoremotionsofalanguageuserinchoosingawordandinfluenceofthoseonthelistenerorreader’sinterpretationofthewordForexample,animalitselfhasaconnotativemeaningoftenrelatedtofriendshipandloyalty.UnderstandingthesenserelationsamongwordsCollocationsItisbelievedthatteachingwordcollocationsisamoreeffectivewaythanjustteachingonesinglewordatatime.Synonyms,antonyms,andhyponymsReceptive/passiveandproductive/activevocabularyWaysofpresentingvocabulary:TrytoprovideavisualorphysicaldemonstrationwheneverpossibleProvideaverbalcontexttodemonstratemeaningUsesynonymsandantonymsandhyponymstoexplainmeaningUsewordformationrulesandcommonaffixestobuildupnewlexicalknowledge.Pre-fabricatedformulaicitems:toteachvocabularyinchunks.Chunksrefertoagroupofwordsthatgotogethertoformmeaning.Waysofconsolidatingvocabulary:LabellingSpotthedifferenceDescribeanddrawPlayagameUsewordseriesWordbingoWordassociationFindsynonymsandantonymsCategoriesDevelopingvocabularylearningstrategyReviewregularlyGuessmeaningfromthecontextOrganizevocabularyeffectivelyUseadictionaryMonolingualdictionaryshouldbeencouragedthanbi-lingualdictionaryStudentsshouldbeguidedconstantlytoself-evacuatetheeffectivenessofthestrategy.Unit9teachinglistening1.Listeningcanbemoredifficultthanreadingbecause:Differentspeakerproducedifferentsoundsindifferentways.(Differentdialects,andaccents,stress,rhythms,intonations)Thelistenerhaslittleornocontroloverthespeedoftheinputofspokenmaterial;Spokenmaterialisoftenheardonlyonceandinmostcases,wecannotgobackandlistenagainaswecanwhenweread.Thelistenercannotpausetoworkoutthemeaningofthehardmaterialascanbedonewhenreading.Speedismorelikelytobedistortedbythemediawhichtransmitsoundsorthebackgroundnoisethatcanmakeitdifficulttohearclearly.Thelistenersometimeshastodealsimultaneouslywithothertaskwhilelistening,suchasformalnote-taking,writingdowndirectionsormessagesfromtelephonecalls,oroperatingwhilelisteningtoinstructions.2.Charactersoflisteningcharacters:Spontaneity:peoplespeakingspontaneouslyandinformallywithoutrehearsingwhattheyaregoingtosayaheadoftime.Context:thesituationhelpsuspredictwhatwearegoingtohear.Visualclues:mostofthetime,wecanseethepersonwearelisteningto.(facialexpressions,gestures,andotherbodylanguage)Listener’response:wecaninterruptthespeakersandaskforrepetitionorclarification.Speaker’sadjustment.(Thespeakercanadjustthewayofspeakingaccordingtothelistener’sreaction.)Manypublishedtextbookshavetendedtofocusonlisteningtestratherthanfocusingonimprovingstudentslistening’performance.Thisapproachhastwoproblems:Itdoesnotgivestudentsopportunitiestodeveloplisteningskillswithotherskills.Listeningcomprehensionquestionsonlyteststudents’levelofcomprehensionbutdonottrainstudentshowtolisteningorhowtodevelopeffectivelisteningstrategies.4.Principlesforlistening:Focusonprocess:peoplemustdomanythingstoprocessinformationthattheyarereceiving.Itisveryimportanttodesigntaskswhichcanshowhowwellstudentscomprehendthelisteningmaterial.CombinelisteningwithotherskillsFocusoncomprehensionofmeaning(traditionaltextbooktestonstudents’memory)Gradeanddifficultylevelappropriately:TypeoflanguageusedTaskorpurposeinlisteningContextinwhichthelisteningoccurs.Modelsforteachinglistening:Bottom-upmodel:listeningcomprehensionisbelievedtostartwithsoundandmeaningrecognitions.Listenersconstructmeaningofwhattheyhearbasedonthesoundtheyhear.Top-downmodel:listeningforthegistandmakinguseofthecontextualcluesandbackgroundknowledgetoconstructmeaningareemphasized.Listeninginvolvesbothbottom-upmodelandtop-downmodel.Comprehensionistheresultofintegrateoftheinformationconveyedbythetextwithinformationandconceptsalreadyknownbythelistener.Threelisteningstages:Pre-listening:PredictingSettingthescene(gettingbackgroundinformation)Listeningforthegist(askstudentsoneortwoquestionsthatfocusonthemainideaorthetoneormoodofthewholepassage.)ListeningforspecificinformationMostofthetime,wewouldonlyuseonlyonepre-readingtask.Itcouldntakemuchtime.Whilelistening:Nospecificresponses:givingstudentsanytaskthefirsttimetheylisteningtoapassage.Itcantakeanxietyoutoflistening.Listenandtick:thetaskwouldbemucheasier.Listenandsequence:canbecompletedwithoutunderstandingeverywordtheyhear.Itcanbuildconfidence.Listenandact:totalphysicalresponseListenanddraw:itworksverywellwhenthereisaninformationgapbetweenpairs.Relatedvocabularyshouldbepre-taught.Listenandfill:donotoverdothistaskbecauseitmaymakestudentsfeelthattheyhavetounderstandeveryword.Itishelpfultoprovideataskforthestudentstodowhiletheyarelistening.Thisgivesthestudentsapurposetolistenandhelpsthemfocusonthelistening.Post-listening:Multiple-choicequestions:theteachershouldbalancehis/herteachinginpreparingstudentsfortraditionalmultiple-choicetestsandpreparingthemforusingEnglishintherealworld.Answeringquestions:sometypesmightlendthemselvesnicelytodiscussinsmallgroups.Note-takingandgapfilling:while-listeningandpost-listeningiscombined.DictoglossPreparation:teachersintroducesthetopicandkeywordsoraskinggeneralquestionsaboutthetext.Dictation:threetimesReconstructionAnalysisandcorrectionTherearemanyopportunitiestointegratepost-listeningwithotherlanguagestyle.Unit10teachingspeaking:Fourcommonfeaturesofspokenlanguage:UsinglesscomplexsyntaxTakingshortcuts,e.g.incompletesentencesUsingfixedconventionalphrase/chunksUsingdevicessuchasfillers,hesitationdevicetogivetimebeforespeaking.Principlesforteachingspeaking:Balancingaccuracy-basedwithfluency-basedpracticesContextualizingpractice:peopleuselanguagedifferentlyindifferentcontext,soit’simportanttogivestudentschancetoexperiencelanguageinmeaningfulcontexts.Personalizingpractice:learnsomethingthatisclosetostudents’lifeBuildingupconfidence:onlywhenstudentsfeelconfidenttoexpressthemselves,willtheyparticipateactivelyintheactivities.Maximizingmeaningfulinteractions:(studentspracticeinsmallgroupsandpairs)HelpingstudentsdevelopspeakingstrategiesMakingthebestuseofclassroomlearningenvironmenttoprovidesufficientlanguageinputandpracticeforthestudents.OtherfactorstoconsiderwhendesignspeakingactivitiesMaximumforeigntalkEvenparticipationHighmotivation(interestingtopic/clearobjective)RightlanguagelevelTypesofspeakingtasks:(byLittlewood)Pre-communicationactivities:(controlledandsemi-controlled)Structuralactivities:payattentiontocertainstructuresorfunctionssothatthesecanbeaccuratelyproduces.Quasi-communicationactivities:focusmoreonmeaningandcommunicationCommunicativeactivities:(communicativeandmorecontextualization)FunctionalcommunicationactivitiesSocialinteractionactivitiesStudentsaremoreconcernedonmeaning.Exampleactivities:Information-gapactivitiesDialoguesandrole-plays(Performthedialogueindifferentmoods.Successofrole-play:theteachersenthusiasm;’carefulinstruction;clearsituationsandroles;makingsurestudentshavethelanguagetheyneed.CuecardsActivitiesusingpictures(workwellwithbeginninglevelteachersforitsclearobjectiveandashorttimelimit)Problemsolvingactivities(productive:thereisaclearobjectivetobereachedorproblemtobesolved)FindsomeonewhoHumanscramble.6.Organizingspeakingtasks:StudentstalkalotinforeignlanguageDesigningsmallgroupspeakingtasks(studentsareoftenfeelshyspeakingaforeignlanguageinfrontthewholeclass)Differentgroupscanworkatdifferentlevels.(Modifyagiventasktomakeiteasierforslowerstudentsandmorechallengingformoreadvancedstudents.)Unit11teachingwritingWhatdoeffectivereadersdo?HaveaclearpurposeinreadingReadsilentlyReadphrasebyphrase,ratherthanwordbywordConcentrateontheimportantbits,skimtherest,andskiptheinsignificantpartsUsedifferentspeedsandstrategiesfordifferentreadingtasksPerceivetheinformationinthetargetlanguageratherthanmentallytranslateGuessthemeaningofnewwordsfromthecontext,orignorethemHaveandusebackgroundinformationtohelpunderstandthetext2.Whatdoweread:Ifstudentshaveneverhadtheexperienceofreadingaparticulartypeoftext,howcantheyreaditwitheaseinreallifeWebelieveESL/EFLreadingtextbookshouldhaveavarietyofauthenticmaterials,asmuchasthecoverageallows3.Therearetwobroadlevelsintheactofreading:ArecognitiontaskofperceivingvisualsignalfromtheprintedpagethrougheyesAcognitivetaskofinterpretingthevisualinformation,relatingthereceivedinformationwiththereader’sowngeneralknowledge,andreconstructingthemeaningthatthewriterhadmeanttoconvey.4.Readingstrategies:specifyingapurposeforreadingplanningwhattodo/whatstepstotakepreviewingthetextcheckingthepredictionsskimmingthetextforthemainideasscanningthetextforspecificinformation5.theroleofvocabularysightvocabulary:wordsthatoneisabletorecognizeimmediatelyareoftenreferredtoassightvocabularyThebestandeasiestwaytodevelopvocabularytoreadagreatdeal.Onlywhenanindividualwordismetandunderstoodagainandagainindifferentcontextscanitbecomeapartofthelearner’ssightvocabulary.Insteadofjustusingtextbookstoreachthewordsandstructurestothestudents,theteachershouldtrytointroduceanextensivereadingschemewheneverpossibletoencourageleanerstoreadmoreafterclass.Thisautomatic,rapid,andaccurateprocessofwordrecognitionshouldnotbeconfusedwiththestrategyofslow,letterbyletter,orsyllablebysyllablesoundingoutofwords.Possessingalargesightvocabularyisanecessarybutnotsufficientconditionforeffectivereadingcomprehension.6.Principlesforteachingreading:Theselectedtextandattachedtasksshouldbeaccessibletothestudents.(inaccessibleonedoesnothelpbutcausefrustration)Tasksshouldbegiveninadvance.Preferably,tasksshouldmotivatestudents.Tasksshouldbedesignedtoencourageselectiveandintelligentreadingforthemainmeaningratherthanteststudents’understanding平时的of)trividetal(ils.Tasksshouldhelpdevelopstudentsreadingskillsandratherthantesttheirreadingcomprehension.Teachershouldhelpstudentsnotmerelytocopewithoneparticulartextinclassbuttodeveloptheirreadingstrategiesandreadingabilityingeneral.Provideenoughguidanceandassistanceatthebeginningtohelpstudentsreadanddevelopreadingstrategiesbutgraduallywithdrawhis/herguidance.7.Modelsforteachingreading:Bottom-upmodel:readingcomprehensionisbasedonthemasteryofnewwordsandnewstructuresaswellasalotofreadingaloudpractice.Top-downmodel:one’backgroundsknowledgeplaysaporeimportantrolethannewwordsandnewstructuresinreadingcomprehension.So,teachersshouldteachbackgroundknowledgefirstsothatstudentsequippedwithsuchknowledgewillbeabletoguessmeaningfromtheprintedpage.Interactivemodel:readingprocessdoesnotonlyinvolvetheprintedpagebutalsothereader’knowledgesofthelanguageingeneral.Ourbrainreceivesvisualinformationandatthesametimereconstructthemeaningthewriterhadinmindwhenhewrotethetext.Pre-readingwhile-readingandpost-readingactivities:Pre-readingactivities:Thepurposeofpre-readingactivitiesistofacilitatewhile-readingactivities.Predicting:gethismindclosertothethemeofthetexttobereadBasedonthetitleBasedonthevocabularyBasedonT/FquestionsSettingthescene:befamiliarwiththecultureandsocialbackgroundknowledge.Skimming:readingquicklytogetthegist.AskgeneralquestionsProvide3-4statementsandoneofthemrepresentsthemainidea.Askstudentstoreadthetextanddecidewhichstatementisthecorrectone.Scanning:readtogetspecificinformationProvidesubtitlesfordifferentpartsofatextandasksstudentstoputtheminrightplaceWhenconductingscanningactivities,theteachershouldbearinmindthefollowingthings:SetatimelimitGiveclearinstructionsforthetaskWaituntil70%ofthestudentsfinishMakeclearhowyouaregoingtogetfeedbackMakesurethattheanswerstothescanningquestionsarescatteredthroughoutthetextratherthanclusteredatoneplacewhile-readingactivities:Transitiondevice:Informationinplaintextdoesnotfacilitateinformationretention.Usevisualform,itwillbemoreeffective.Itisveryimportantforstudentstofinishthetasksduringthereadingprocess,insteadofaftertheyfinishreading.PurposeoftransitiondeviceFocusattentiononthemainmeaningofthetext.BeabletosimplifysophisticatedinputsothatitbecomesthebasisforoutputAllowstudentstoperformtaskswhiletheyarereadingHighlightthestructuralorganizationofthetextInvolvestudentsinclearlydefinedreadingtasksPrecedeonestepatatimeWhenaTDisdone,useitasabasisforfurtheroral/writtenlanguageReadingcomprehensionquestions:QuestionofliteralcomprehensionQuestioninvolvingreorganizationorreinterpretationQuestionforinferenceQuestionforevacuationorappreciation(whatwriterisgoingtodoandhowsuccessfulheisinachievinghispurpose)?Questionforpersonalresponse(reader’sreactiontothecontent)UnderstandingreferenceMakinginferencepost-readingactivities:Post-readingtasksshouldprovidethestudentswithopportunitiestorelatewhattheyhavereadtowhattheyhavealreadyknoworwhattheyfeel.DiscussquestionReproducingthetext:(retellthestory)RoleplayGap-fillingDiscussionRetellingWritingUnit12Teachingwriting1.AcommunicativeapproachtowritingAskstudentstowritesomethingtheywanttowriteandthattheyarefamiliarwith.Theirworkisintendedtobereadbysomeone.Theyshouldhavewritingaudience.2.Problemsinwritingtasks:Theyaremainlyaccuracy-based.Theyaredesignedtopracticeacertaintargetstructures.Thereisinefficientpreparationbeforetheirwriting.Thereisnosenseofaudience.Thereisnosenseofauthenticity.Studentsaregivenideastoexpressratherthanbeinginvitedtocreatetheirownideas.Therenoopportunityforcreativewriting,particularforexpressingunusualororiginalideas.Manyofthemaretestoriented.Themainproceduresofprocesswritinginclude:CreatingamotivationtowriteBrainstorming(studentsworktogethertobrainstormideasforwriting)Mapping(adiagramoranoutlinecanbeusedtodothis;mappinghelpsstudentstoselectfromthoseideas)Freewriting(Alltheyneedtodoistoputideasonpaper;itcanhelpstudentsbuildfluencyinwriting.)Outlining(theoutlineusuallyillustratethestructureoftheirwriting.)Drafting(thedevelopmentofideasismoreimportantthangrammaticalstructures)Editing?Peereditingandself-editing?Notsimplytofinderrorsaboutone’swritingbuttonegotiatemeaningandimprovingwriting?Suggestions+praiseRevising(teachersguidestudentstomakeimprovementsinbothorganizationandcontentsbothoneitherself-editingandpeerediting)Proofreading(studentsshouldbeguidedtoreadtheirwritingagaincarefullyformanymistakesingrammar,spelling,punctuation,orcapitalization.Conferencing(teachersfacetofacetalkingwithstudentsabouttheweaknessandstrengthoftheirwriting.)4.PrinciplesthatcanmotivatestudentstowriteMaketopicofwritingascloseaspossibletostudents

’

lifeLeavestudentsenoughtimeforcreativityandimaginat