英文跨文化沟通复习资料

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Theimportanceoflearningaboutculture1.Understandingforeignculturesisnotonlyimportantforpaniesthatoperateinmorethanoneglobalareaandmarketinternationally.Itisjustimportantfororganizationsathomethatemployworkersfrommorethanoneculture.2.Understandingcultureisalsoimportantforindividualswhoworkintheglobalworkplace.3.thetwoimportantreasonsforunderstandingculturearetolearnhowothersmakesenseof〔搞清.的意思〕theirenvironment,andtopreventmistakesandmismunications.2.对待差异的态度〔RespondingtoDifferentCultures〕：1.hostility(敌对)todifference2.Curiosityaboutdifference3.Denyingdifference:Assumptionsofsuperiority(优越);Ethnocertrism(民族中心论);Aeratingwithdifference3.Minimizeandpreventmistakesacrosscultures〔贯彻〕knowledge,andbehavinginawaythatmakessenseintheotherculture,theoneinwhichyouwanttodobusiness.4.cultureisthecoherent,,sharedviewofagroupofpeopleaboutlife’sconcerns,e*pressedinsymbolsandactivities,thatrankswhatisimportant,furnishes〔提供〕attitudesaboutwhatthingsareappropriate,anddictatesbehavior.5.文化三特征:1Coherent:eachculture,pastorpresent,iscoherentandpletewithinitself—anentireviewoftheuniverse2.Learned:cultureisnotsomethingwebornwith3.Theviewofagroupofpeople:issharedbyasociety.三功能：1.Rankswhatisimportant:teachesvaluesorpriorities.2.FurnishesAttitudes:attitudesarebasedonbeliefsaswellasonvalues.3Dictateshowtobehave:behavioresdirectlyfromattitudesabouthowsignificantsomethingis–howitisvalued.6.Onstageandbackstage:Onstagecultureisthebehaviorwedisplay,itiseasytochange.(interchangeable)Backstagecultureisnotsovisible,itisdifficulttochange.(theessenceofpeople’sculture)7.Transactionculture:atransactionculturee*istswheninteractantsrespondtoculturalcuesandmodifytheirownbehavior,creating-orco-creating—anew,temporaryculture.(调整行为，适应对方or共同产生新行为)Theamountofadjustedbehaviordependsonseveralfactors:1theirlevelofknowledgeabouttheotherculture2theirwillingnesstoe*perimentwithnewbehaviorsandattitudes3theirpreviouse*periencewithsuccessfulinterculturalinteractions.8.Cultureshock:Cultureshockisthesenseofdislocation〔转位〕andtheproblems-psychologicalandevenphysical-thatresultfromthestressoftryingtomakethehundredsofadjustmentsnecessaryforlivinginaforeignculture.7.Transactionculture四个阶段:1.E*periencinganewcultureisusuallyeuphoria(欣快)2.Downturnasdisillusionment(幻灭)andfrustration(沮丧)egration(融合)Euphoria:everythingaboutthee*citingnewadventureiswonderful—nolongertwoweeks.Thesecondstageisadownturnasdisillusionmentandfrustrationarise.Itisafeelingofnotbeinginstepwiththemembersoftheculture.Adjustment.---asthesojourner〔寄居者〕learnsmoreaboutthebackstagecultureandhowtheothercultureworks,heorsheisabletocooperatemoreeffectivelywithmembersofthehostculture.thefourthstage,integration,occurswhenasojournerbeesfluentenoughintheotherculturetomoveeasilywithinitandnotbethrownbythedifferentattitudes,beliefs,andvalues,andthebehaviorstheygenerate.Reversecultureshock:asimilaradjustmentperiodwithitsacpanyingsymptomsusuallyoccurswhenasojournerreturnsa9.Self-knowledgeandunderstandingone’sownculture:Havingagoodunderstandingofone’sowncultureisthebestfoundationfordevelopingtheabilitytounderstandthemunicationbehaviorofpeoplefromothercultures.Toachieveit---Mentalrepresentation:usementalcategoriesthatholdinformationitemsgroupedtogether.10.MentalRepresentation三个心里表征：prejudice〔racism，ageism〕;bias;discrimination11.Prejudicegeneralizationsthatarebasedonlimitedknowledge,andthate*pressanevaluation-usuallynegative-areprejudices.Biasabiasforsomethingisreallynothingmorethanapreference.AbiasagainstsomethingisanegativeattitudethatranksitlowDiscriminationwhenbiasesorprejudicesareactedon,theactorisshowingdiscrimination.Discriminationistheactofsifting〔过滤〕outandselectingaccordingtobiastowardsomethingorsomeone,andtreatingthemdifferently.12.Areculturesmergingintooneglobalculture"(文化定义；onstage，backstage)13.Approachestostudyingcultures:1.focusonacultureasawhole(emicstudies一个文化不同层面,eticstudies多种文化的共性)2focusonindividual(individualsmayhaveanynumberofe*periences,personalinsights,personalgoals,interestsande*pectationsthatarepartoftheiridetities.14.EmicstudiesStudiesthatconcentrateononeculturealonearecalledemicstudies.EticstudiesStudiesthatlookforfactorsthate*istinmorethanoneculturearecalledeticstudies.CulturalgeneralizationsStudiesaboutwholeculturegiveusconclusionsthataregeneralizationsabouttheculture.15.CulturaldimensionsCharacteristicsthatcouldbethebasisofparisonsfromculturetocultureiscalledculturaldimensions.16.Stereotypes:Stereotypingmeansusingoversimplifiedgeneralizationstounderstandpeople1stereotypesarefi*ed,firm,infle*iblementalcategories2prototypes〔原型〕aretheoriginalconceptsormodelsforsomething.3norareallstereotypesbad,somearepositive.17.Self-identity:identityisassthformedinpartbytheselfandinpartbygroupmembership.Self-conceptcanbeformedinthreegeneralways.①SocialPsychology---e*perience.②munication---coresymbols,labelsandnorms.③Critical---socialconte*ts(history,economics,polities,publicdiscourse).18.Self-construal(自我建构)ishowweseeourselvesinrelationtoothers,withregardtofeelings,thoughts,andbehavior.Ingeneral,westernculturehaveanindependentself-construal,andeasterncultureshaveaninterdependent〔相互依赖的〕self-construal.19.Individualismvaluesindividualachievements,failures,andrightsoverthecollective.Collectivismvaluesthegroupabovetheindividual,andindividualshavearesponsibilitytothegroupthatsupersedes〔取代〕individualneedsorrights.20.文化维度1.语境：a.高High-conte*tculturesrelyontheconte*t,eithertheactualphysicalenvironmentofmunicationoraninternalized〔内在化的〕socialconte*t,orboth,toconveyalargepartorevenallofamessage’smeaning.Itiselliptical省略的，indirect，allusive〔暗指的〕.低:Low-conte*tculturesentrust〔委托〕themeaningalmostentirethewords.itise*plicit，direct,pletely.2.集体个人a.定义b集体-关系导向型，个人-结果导向型c.Acharacteristicofindividualistcultureispetitiveness;thecorrespondingvalueincollectivistculturesiscooperation.Collectivism:relationships,old,permanent,public,highpowerdistance(hierarchical),high-conte*tculture,hideemotion,cooperation,harmony,dependence.Individualism:results,youth,temporary,private,lowpowerdistance(horizontal),low-conte*tculture,e*pressEmotion,petitiveness,independence.3.权力距离：Powerdistanceisthedegreetowhichless-powerfulmembersofanorganizationtolerateunequaldistributionofpower,say,betweenmanagersandemployees.cultureswithasmallerpowerdistancearemorehorizontal,lesshierarchical,andlessauthoritarianthanarecultureswithahighpowerdistance.Cultureswithhighpowerdistanceareinequalityinpower,lesshorizontal,morehierarchical,andmoreauthoritarian.21.High-conte*tcultures:valuerelationships,teamwork,andlong-termgroupmembership.Itrelyonsubjectiveinformationthatisinternalized(elliptical,indirect,allusive).Low-conte*tcultures:valueindependentdecisions,activitythatachievesgoals,andindividualaccountability(e*plicit,direct,pletely).22.Highculturereferstothoseculturalactivitiesthatareoftenthedomainoftheeliteorwell-to-do:ballet,sumphony,opera,greatliterature,andfineart.International;timeless;transcendent(超然的);Lowculturereferstotheactivitiesofthenonelite:musicvideos,gameshows,professionalwrestling,stockcarracing,graffitiart,tvtalkshows,andsoon.23.Wherecaninformationaboutculturesbefound:1.askpeoplewhoaremembersofthecultureyouwanttounderstand.2.Anothergoodsourcemaybesomeonewhohasspentconsiderabletimeinthatculturebutisnotanativememberofit.3.Youcaninquire(询问)intoaculturebyreadingfictionfromthatculture.4.findoutwhatpeopleofaculturesayaboutthemselves.5.Informationaboutculturesalsoesfromstudiesbyanthropologistswhoresearchculturesinthefield,goingtoliveamongthemembersoftheculturetheywanttounderstand.24.DoesKnowingefromConceptsorE*perience:1.knowingbysecondhandinformationfromareliablesource.2.inEnglish-speakingorEuropeancultures,abstract〔提取〕uition(知觉),meditation〔冥想〕25.DoesLearningefromAskingQuestionsorMasteringReceivedWisdom:1.IntheUnitedStates,studentswhoaskquestionsarerewarded.2.InmanyculturesinAsia,LatinAmerica,theMiddleEast,andSouthernEurope,learningmeansreceivingandtakinginwhatisgivenbyteachers.26.DoesKnowledgeHaveLimits:themoreyoulearn,thelessyouknow.E.g.nonscientistswhohavefaithinwhatsciencecanachieve27.HowDoPeopleReason:1.Westernculturesprimarily〔首先〕useacause-and-effectpatternofthinking.(LinearLogic);twooppositethingscannotbothbetrue.2.Otherculturesuseotherpatterns.(SpiralLogic)a.InAsian:thinkingislinkage;theoppositesco-e*ist28.IsDoingImportantorIsBeingImportant:1.Doing:westerncultures:activity-oriented,peaceoflife,crowdedagendas〔日程〕.2.Being:stillness,collectedness,serenity〔平静〕,silence(membersofdoingculturesviewsilenceaswaste,membersofculturesthatvaluebeingalsooftenvaluesilence).29.AreTasksDoneSequentiallyorSimultaneously：1.performingtasksone-by-oneinasequence误解disorganized2.performingmultipletaskssimultaneously误解；infle*ible30.DoResultsorRelationshipsTakePriority1.Individulism:a.cause-and-effect,goals-oriented,tomakeprogress〔进步〕.b.identifygoalsandworktowardthemc.Strategytoachievement.d.measurehowcloseyouhavee2.collectivism:a.relationship-orientedb.Valuetherelationshipasameanstoanend.31.IsUncertainty(不确定性)AvoidedorTolerated:1.uncertainty-averse:Doing：avoiduncertainty,strivetoprotectthemselvesfromtheunknown2.uncertaimty-tolerant:Being,tolerantuncertainty;bemoreopentoacceptingtheune*cepted.32.IsLuckanEssentialFactororanIrrelevance:1.Luckisirrelevant,inculturesthatthinkincause-and-effectpatternsandthatvalueresults,planning—notluck—isthekeytosuccess.2.Insomecultures,luckorfateordestinyplaysalargepart,peoplesroleinachievingsuccesshaslesseffectthanforcesoutsidethemselves.33.AreRulestoBeFollowedorBent:1.Followed:neat，predictablebehavior,uncertainavoidance〔逃避〕.2.Bent:fle*ibilitytomeethumanneeds;uncertain〔无常的〕tolerance.34.IsChangePositiveorNegative:1.ThecultureoftheUnitedStatesthinksofchangeasdesirableandpositive.Newmeansbetter.2.Traditionally,agrarianculturestypicallyviewchangeisnegative.Itmeansdisruption〔破坏〕totheestablishedpatternsoflife.35.IsDeaththeEndofLifeorPartofLife:Someculturesviewdeathastheendoflife,aquenching〔熄灭〕ofthelight.Itisdreaded〔令人畏惧的〕.Someculturesviewdeathasanotherphaseinlife,anecessarystepinthepatternoflife.Itisaccepted.简36.RelationshipbetweenLanguageandculture:1.cultureandlanguageareintertwined(缠绕的)andshapeeachother.Itisimpossibletoseparatethetwo.2.Alllanguageshavesocialquestionsandinformationquestions.3.Languagereflectstheenvironmentinwhichwelive;languagereflectsculturalvalues;Sometimesdifferentculturesuseidenticalwordsthathaveratherdifferentmeanings.37.不重视语言的问题1.Acronyms(首字母缩略词)2.implicationofthelanguagebarrier.(字同音不同，异国异含义)38.Selectionoftherightlanguage:1.LinguisticConsiderations2.BusinessConsiderations3.PoliticalConsiderations4.TheAppropriateLevelofFluency39.municationwithnonnativespeakers:EffectiveFace-to-Facemunication：a.enunciateb.speakslowlyc.AvoidSlangandColloquialisms〔白话〕d.BeCarefulaboutJokes.e.BeSincereg.BeCulturallySensitiveh.KeepaSenseofHumor40.EffectiveWrittenmunicationa.UsePlentyofWhiteSpaceb.UseCorrectTitlesandSpellingsofNamesc.UnderstandPatternsofOrganizationd.UseHeadingse.BeCarefulwithNumbersf.BeCarefulwithDatesg.AvoidAbbreviationsh.FollowtheConventionsofWrittenmunication41.技术对沟通的影响：1.telephone；2.skype3.Email,te*tingandtwitters42.非语言交流影响因素：1.Culturalbackground2.socialeconomicbackground3.Education4.Gender5.Age6.Personalpreferencesandidiosyncrasies〔特质〕43.Paralanguage1.vocalqualifiers:Thetermvocalqualifiersreferstovolume〔音量〕,pitch〔音高〕,andtheoverallintonation〔声调〕ormelody〔旋律〕ofthespokenword.2.vocalization:Allculturesusenonwordnoisessuchasahem,um,er,suckinginone’sbreath,andclickingone’stongue.44.Nonverbalbusinessconventions：1.eyecontact〔asignofhonesty/privacy〕2.Faciale*pression〔不同文化频率frequency强度intensity不同a.smiling(indicatejoy,embarrassmentoravoidembarrassment.)b.showinganger(milderform-frowning;hideanger)3.gesture(head/armmovements;posture)4.timinginspokene*changes(anenvironmentthatemphasizesequality;seniorityandhierarchy;theroleofmen.)5.touching(peoplefromlow-conte*tculturestendtobefeelcrowdedbypeoplefromhigh-conte*tcultures,andpeoplefromhigh-conte*tculturesfeelleftoutandrejectedbypeoplefromlow-conte*tcultures.6.Thelanguageofspace(private/office/publicspace)7.Appearance〔a.不同国家穿衣风格不同b.inmostcultures,dressalsoidentifiesapersonasbelongingtoaspecificgroupandhavingacertainstatus.〕8.Silence:(高语境文化更倾向于使用沉默，低语境：silenceoftenisinterpretedastheabsenceofmunication)45.Signalsofrespect:itcanbedifferentfromculturetoculture,anditmaytakesometimetolearnwhatise*ceptedbehavior.PositionsofauthorityDressasasymbolofauthority46权威的象征：1.toneandbehavior2.Language(indicator)3.Familyandsocietalstructures(indicator)Assertiveness(魄力)v.sHarmony.:1.standingupforone’sownrights(individualism,lowpowerdistance)2.Preservingharmony(collectivism,highpowerdistance)47绩效的认可及奖励：1.monetaryrecognition2.nonmonetaryrewards48自我认同1.Self-identity—ASocialPsychologyApproach：〔e*periences〕wecanthinkaboutself-conceptisthatwebuildupoursenseofselffromchildhood,basedone*perienceswehavehadthatcontributetooursenseofself.2.Self-identity—AmunicationApproach〔munication〕：Identities〔身份〕aremunicatedincoresymbols,labels,andnorms.49.Self-identity—ACriticalApproach(socialconte*t):Thecriticalapproachtoself-identityuseshistory,economics,politics,andpublicdiscourse.50Age:IsSeniorityValuedorDiscounted:a.Inculturesthatvalueage,theolderabusinesspersonisthemorecredibilityheorshehas.b.inyouth-orientedculturesbeingyoungseemstomeanhavingmorechoices,morepower,moreenergy,andmorefreedom.51Gender:AreWomenEqualsorSubordinates:a.Intraditionalcultures,thetwofactsarerelated.Child-bearingandchild-nurturingarethemainrolesofwomen.b.managementrolea52Socialorganization:1GroupMembership:TemporaryorPermanent:a.IndividualsintheUnitedStatesaremembersofmanygroupssimultaneously;groupmembershipisimpermanentb.Inothercultures,theresponsibilitiesofmembershipebeforerights;groupmembershipispermanent,belongingstartswiththefamily.53threefunctionsofgroupmunication:1.GiveandSaveFace2.DisplayEmotion(collectivistcountries,cultureteachespeoplefromanearlyagetoshowemotion.3.aboutShameorGuilt(a.Inindividualisticcultures,whereindividualresponsibility,results,andprivacyarevalued,guiltisapotentwayforaculturetoenforce〔实施〕rulesofbehavior.b.Incollectivistcultureswheregroupmembership,relationships,andpublicknowledgeofone’slifeareimportant,shameenforcestherulesofconduct.)54form:ImportantorUntrustworthy〔靠不住的〕:Behavingaccordingtoformmeansbehavingcorrectly.55PersonalMatters:PrivateorPublic:a.InEurope,asinBritain,Canada,theUnitedStates,Australia,andNewZealand,aperson’sworklifeiskeptfairlyseparatefromprivatelife.b.culturesthatemphasizerelationships,viewgroupmember-shipaslongterm,andvalueharmonyhaveablurred〔模糊不清的〕distinction〔区别〕betweenwhatisprivateandwhatispublic(oratleastwhatis"group〞).56SocialOrganizationalPatterns:HorizontalorHierarchical:1.monarchies(君主制):atonee*tremearerigid〔严格的〕verticallevelsinsociety,2.Democracies:movementbetweenthemisverylimited;attheothere*treme,societyishorizontalandoperateswithfewlevels.57ApproachtoAuthority:DirectorMediated:1.inmanycultures,theapproachtoauthorityisindirect.2.InNewZealand,inwhichhorizontalityhaspriority,theapproachtoauthorityisdirect.58municatingaboutproblems:1.inlow-conte*tcultures:direct2.inhigh-conte*tculture:indirect,putahighpriorityonkeepingharmony,preventinganyoneimportantfromlosingface,andnurturingrelationship.59Sayingno:1.itisdonewithdelayandindirectnessinlow-conte*tcultures,therationale〔根本原理〕istoe*plainwhyfirst.2.itismoredifficultforhigh-conte*tculture,whichisoftensayingyes.60Giftgiving;1.inmanycultures,itisappropriatetotakesmallgiftswhenoneisinvitedtoenjoyhospitality〔好客〕.2.thewaypeoplefromdifferentculturese*pressappreciationforhospitalityvaries.3.thetimingofgreetingsisalsoimportant61Managingconflicts:conflictisaclashbetweenpeopleorbetweenideasthatengages〔吸引〕peopleinastruggleagainsteachother.1.Inindividualistculture(result-oriented)peopleareresponsiblefortheconsequenceoftheirownindividualactivities.2.incollectivistculture(relationship-oriented):theyvalueonrelationship,problemsarenotanindividualresponsibility.解决方式〔合作〕〔调节〕Popularculturereferstothosesystemsorartifactsthatmostpeopleshareandthatmostpeopleknow63.it'sproducedbycultureindustries.it'sdiffersfromfolkculture.it'severywhere.it'sfillsasocialfunction.Itdiffersfromfolkculture.Popularculture:mass-producedandmass-marketedcultureFolkculture:moreauthentic"folk"culturea65CollectivismThinkaboutthefamily'swelfare,reputation,andhonor.Marriageandbirth-giving,insteadofpersonalaffairs,aretakencarebyalltheothersinyourgroupwhichbasicallyisyourfamily.66IndividualismTakesthemarriageasone'sownbusiness.Putyourselfinthefirstplacethinkingofyourownhappiness,interests67Theconceptofface.Concernforface