考研英语考研英语强化班翻译

考研翻译:a.弄清什么是翻译b,怎么做翻译.考研翻译中英汉语语言特点1）形合与意合2）繁复与简短9Almostallourmajorproblemsinvolvehumanbehavior,andtheycannotbesolvedbyphysicalandbiologicaltechnologyalone.Whatisneededisatechnologyofbehavior,butwehavebeenslowtodevelopthesciencefromwhichsuchatechnologymightbedrawn.61)Onedifficultyisthatalmostallofwhatiscalledbehavioralsciencecontinuestotracebehaviortostatesofmind,feelings,traitsofcharacter,humannature,andsoon..Physicsandbiologyoncefollowedsimilarpracticesandadvancedonlywhentheydiscardedthem.62)Thebehavioralscienceshavebeenslowtochangepartlybecausetheexplanatoryitemsoftenseemtobedirectlyobservedandpartlybecauseotherkindsofexplanationshavebeenhardtofind.Theenvironmentisobviouslyimportant,butitsrolehasremainedobscure.Itdoesnotpushorpull,itselects,andthisfunctionisdifficulttodiscoverandanalyze.63)Theroleofnaturalselectioninevolutionwasformulatedonlyalittlemorethanahundredyearsago,andtheselectiveroleoftheenvironmentinshapingandmaintainingthebehavioroftheindividualisonlybeginningloberecongnizedandstudied.Astheinteractionbetweenorganismandenvironmenthascometobeunderstood,however,effectsonceassignedtostatesofmind,feelings,andtraitsarebeginningtobetracedtoaccessibleconditions,andatechnologyofbehaviormaythereforebecomeavailable.Itwillnotsolveourproblems,however,untilitreplacestraditionalprescientificviews,andthesearestronglyentrenched.Freedomanddignityillustratethedifficulty.64)Theyarethepossessionsoftheautonomous(self-goveming)manoftraditionaltheory,andtheyareessentialtopracticesinwhichapersonisheldresponsibleforhisconductandgivencreditforhisachievements.Ascientificanalysisshiftsboththeresponsibilityandtheachievementtotheenvironment.Italsoraisesquestionsconcerning"values”.Whouseatechnologyandtowhatends?65)Untiltheseissuesareresolved,atechnologyofbehaviorwillcontinuetoberejected,andwilhitpossiblytheonlywaytosolveourproblems.3)被动与主动4)抽象与具体Passage2Thestandardizededucationalorpsychologicalteststhatarewidelyusedtoaidinselecting,classifying,assigning,orpromotingstudents,employees,andmilitarypersonnelhavebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooks,magazines,thedailypress,andevenincongress.71)Thetargetiswrong,forinattackingthetests,criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithilLinformedorincompetentusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytools,withcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonableprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillbevaluable,meaningless,orevenmisleadingdependspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser.Allinformedpredictionsoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance:schoolgradesresearchproductive,salesrecords,orwhateverisappropriate.72)Howwellthepredictionswillbevalidatedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamount,reliability,andappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandwisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anvonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationavailableisalwaysincompleteandthatthepredictionsarealwayssubjecttoerror.Standardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquick,objectivemethodofgettingsomekidsofinformationaboutwhatapersonlearned,theskillshehasdeveloped,orthekindsofpersonheis.Theinformationsoobtainedhas,qualitatively,thesameadvantagesandshortcomingsasotherkindsofinformation.73)Whethertousetests,otherkindsofinformation,orbothinaparticularsituationdepends,therefore,uponiheevidencefromexperienceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability.Ingeneral,thetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenihequalitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedandleasteffectivelywhenwhatistobemeasuredorpredictedcannotbewelldefined.Properlvused,theyprovidearapidmeansofgettingcomparableinformationaboutmanypeople.Sometimestheyidentifystudentswhosehighpotentialhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognized,buttherearemanythings,theydonotdo.75)Forexample,theydonotcompensateforgrosssocialinequality,andthusdonottellhowableanunderprivilegedyoungstermighthavebeenhadhegrownupundermorefavorablecircumstances..考研翻译的题型、题型特点、考试内容和评分标准1)考研翻译的题型第二课时2)考研翻译的题型特点3)考研翻译的考试内容3Thedifferencesinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.71)Someofthesecausesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself・accelerating.Some,however,arelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionsoftheformscientifictheoryoughttotake,bypersonsinauthority,acttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable;butitisafrighteningtrend.72)ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWar,whenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatihespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeoiitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcanbepredicted,however,thatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.73)ThisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupDortingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequenceinthefuture.Thiskindofsupport,likeallgovernmentsupport,requiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupporting"good"asopposedto"bad"science,butavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generally,theideaofgoodsciencetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.74)However,theworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld'smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.75),Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepast,givingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.10Humanbeingsinalltimesandplacesthinkabouttheirworldandwonderattheirplaceinit.Humansarethoughtfulandcreative,possessedofinsatiablecuriosity.(61)Furthermore,humanshavetheabilitytomodifytheenvironmentinwhichtheylive,thussubjectingallotherHieformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.Therefore,itisimportanttostudyhumansinalltheirrichnessanddiversityinacalmandsystematicmanner,withthehopethattheknowledgeresultingfromsuchstudiescanleadhumanstoamoreharmoniouswayoflivingwiththemselvesandwithallotherlifeformsonthisplanetEarth."Anthropology"derivesfromtheGreekwordsanthropos"human"andlogos"thestudyof."Byitsveryname,anthropologyencompassesthestudyofallhumankind.Anthropologyisoneofsocialsciences.(62)Socialscienceisthatbranchofintellectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasoned,orderly,systematic,anddispassionedmannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena.Socialsciencedisciplinesincludegeography,economics,politicalscience,psychology,andsociology.Eachofthesesocialscienceshasasubfieldorspecializationwhichliesparticularlyclosetoanthropology.Allthesocialsciencesfocusuponthestudyofhumanity.Anthropologyisafield-studyorienteddisciplinewhichmakesextensiveuseofthecomparativemethodinanalysis.(63)Theemphasisondatagatheredfirst-hand,combinedwithacross-culturalperspectivebroughttotheanalysisofculturespastandpresent,makesthisstudyauniqueanddistinctlyimportantsocialscience.Anthropologicalanalysesrestheavilyupontheconceptofculture.SirEdwardTylor'sformulationoftheconceptofculturewasoneofthegreatintellectualachievementsof19thcenturyscience.(64)Tylordefinedcultureas"...thatcomplexwholewhichincludesbelief,art,morals,law,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesandhawtsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety."Thisinsight,soprofoundinitssimplicity,openedupanentirelynewwayofperceivingandunderstandinghumanlife.ImplicitwithinTylor'sdefinitionistheconceptthatcultureislearned,shared,andpatternedbehavior.Thus,iheanthropologicalconceptof"culture."likeiheconceptof"sef'inmathematics,isanabstractconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding.4)考研翻译的评分标准saw.考研翻译解题中的常见问题和应对策略.考研翻译的步骤、标准和方法9Almostallourmajorproblemsinvolvehumanbehavior,andtheycannotbesolvedbyphysicalandbiologicaltechnologyalone.Whatisneededisatechnologyofbehavior,butwehavebeenslowtodevelopthesciencefromwhichsuchatechnologymightbedrawn.61)〇nedifficultyisthatalmostallofwhatiscalledbehavioralsciencecontinuestotracebehaviortostatesofmind,feelings,traitsofcharacter,humannature,andsoon.Physicsandbiologyoncefollowedsimilarpracticesandadvancedonlywhentheydiscardedthem.62)Thebehavioralscienceshavebeenslowtochangepartlybecausetheexplanatoryitemsoftenseemtobedirectlyobservedandpartlybecauseotherkindsofexplanationshavebeenhardtofind.Theenvironmentisobviouslyimportant,butitsrolehasremainedobscure.Itdoesnotpushorpull,itselects,andthisfunctionisdifficulttodiscoverandanalyze.63)Theroleofnaturalselectioninevolutionwasformulatedonlyalittlemorethanahundredyearsago,andtheselectiveroleoftheenvironmentinshapingandmaintainingthebehavioroftheindividualisonlybeginningtoberecongnizedandstudied.Astheinteractionbetweenorganismandenvironmenthascometobeunderstood,however,effectsonceassignedtostatesofmind,feelings,andtraitsarebeginningtobetracedtoaccessibleconditions,andatechnologyofbehaviormaythereforebecomeavailable.Itwillnotsolveourproblems,however,untilitreplacestraditionalprescientificviews,andthesearestronglyentrenched.Freedomanddignityillustratethedifficulty.64)Theyarethepossessionsoftheautonomous(self-governing)manoftraditionaltheory,andtheyareessentialtopracticesinwhichapersonisheldresponsibleforhisconductandgivencreditforhisachievements.Ascientificanalysisshiftsboththeresponsibilityandtheachievementtotheenvironment.Italsoraisesquestionsconcerning"values”.Whouseatechnologyandtowhatends?65)Untiltheseissuesareresolved,atechnologyofbehaviorwillcontinuetoberejected,andwithitpossiblytheonlywaytosolveourproblems.smut两个问题需注意:1.笔记问题,做记录不要把汉字直接批注在英语旁边2.答案问题,上课翻译的句子不会给答案,需要你自己来说答案9Almostallourmajorproblemsinvolvehumanbehavior,andtheycannotbesolvedbyphysicalandbiologicaltechnologyalone.Whatisneededisatechnologyofbehavior,butwehavebeenslowtodevelopthesciencefromwhichsuchatechnologymightbedrawn.61)Onedifficultyisthatalmostallofwhatiscalledbehavioralsciencecontinuestotracebehaviortostatesofmind,feelings,traitsofcharacter,humannature,andsoon.Physicsandbiologyoncefollowedsimilarpracticesandadvancedonlywhentheydiscardedthem.62)Thebehavioralscienceshavebeenslowtochangepartlybecausetheexplanatoryitemsoftenseemtobedirectlyobservedandpartlybecauseotherkindsofexplanationshavebeenhardtofind.Theenvironmentisobviouslyimportant,butitsrolehasremainedobscure.Itdoesnotpushorpull,itselects,andthisfunctionisdifficulttodiscoverandanalyze.63)Theroleofnaturalselectioninevolutionwasformulatedonlyalittlemorethanahundredyearsago,andtheselectiveroleoftheenvironmentinshapingandmaintainingthebehavioroftheindividualisonlybeginningtoberecongnizedandstudied.Astheinteractionbetweenorganismandenvironmenthascometobeunderstood,however,effectsonceassignedtostatesofmind,feelings,andtraitsarebeginningtobetracedtoaccessibleconditions,andatechnologyofbehaviormaythereforebecomeavailable.Itwillnotsolveourproblems,however,untilitreplacestraditionalprescientificviews,andthesearestronglyentrenched.Freedomanddignityillustratethedifficulty.64)TheyareIhepossessionsoftheautonomous(self-governing)manoftraditionaltheory,andtheyareessentialtopracticesinwhichapersonisheldresponsibleforhisconductandgivencrcdilforhisachievements.Ascientificanalysisshiftsboththeresponsibilityandtheachievementtotheenvironment.Italsoraisesquestionsconcerning"values".Whouseatechnologyandtowhatends?65)Untiltheseissuesareresolved,atechnologyofbehaviorwillcontinuetoberejected,andwithitpossiblytheonlywaytosolveourproblems.定语从句其有两种翻译方法:.前置:把定语从句翻译在所修饰的先行词前面。.后置:把定语从句翻译在所修饰的先行词后面。PttmjKe10Humanbeingsinalltimesandplacesthinkabouttheirworldandwonderattheirplaceinit.Humansarethoughtfulandcreative,possessedofinsatiablecuriosity.(61)Furthermore,humanshavetheabilitytomodifytheenvironmentinwnichtheylive,thussubjectingallotherlifeformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.Therefore,itisimportanttostudyhumansinalltheirrichnessanddiversityinacalmandsystematicmanner,withthehopethattheknowledgeresultingfromsuchstudiescanleadhumanstoamoreharmoniouswayoflivingwiththemselvesandwithallotherlifeformsonthisplanetEarth.“Anthropology“derivesfromtheGreekwordsanthropos"human"andlogos"thestudyof."Byitsveryname,anthropologyencompassesthestudyofallhumankind.Anthropologyisoneofsocialsciences.(62)Socialscienceisthatbranchoiintellectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasoned,orderly,systematic,anddispassionedmannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena.Socialsciencedisciplinesincludegeography,economics,politicalscience,psychology,andsociology.Eachofthesesocialscienceshasasubfieldorspecializationwhichliesparticularlyclosetoanthropology.Allthesocialsciencesfocusuponthestudyofhumanity.Anthropologyisafield-studyorienteddisciplinewhichmakesextensiveuseofthecomparativemethodinanalysis.(63)Theemphasisondatagatheredfirst-hand,combinedwithacross-culturalperspectivebroughttotheanalysisofculturespastandpresent,makesthisstudyauniqueanddistinctlyimportantsocialscience.Anthropologicalanalysesrestheavilyupontheconceptofculture.SirEdwardTylor'sformulationoftheconceptofculturewasoneofthegreatintellectualachievementsof19thcenturyscience.(64)Tylordefinedcultureas"...thatcomplexwholewhichincludesbelief,art,morals,law,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety."Thisinsight,soprofoundinitssimplicity,openedupanentirelynewwayofperceivingandunderstandinghumanlife.ImplicitwithinTylor'sdefinitionistheconceptthatcultureislearned,shared,andpatternedbehavior.Thus,theanthropologicalconceptof"culture,“liketheconceptof"seビinmathematics,isanabstractconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding.5Theywere,byfar,thelargestandmostdistantobjectsthatscientistshadeverdetected:astripofenormouscosmiccloudssome15billionlight-yearsfromearth.71)Butevenmoreimportant,itwasthefarthestthatscientistshadbeenabletolookintoihepast,forwhaltheywereseeingwereIhepatternsandslructuresthalexisled15billionyearsago.Thatwasjustaboutthemomentthattheuniversewasborn.Whattheresearchersfoundwasatoncebothamazingandexpected;theUSNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration'sCosmicBackgroundExplorersatellite-Cobe一haddiscoveredlandmarkevidencethattheuniversedidinfactbeginwiththeprimevalexplosionthathasbecomeknownastheBigBang(thetheorythattheuniverseoriginatedinanexplosionfromasinglemassofenergy.)72)TheexistenceofthegiantcloudswasvirtuallyrequiredfortheBigBang,firstputforwardinthe1920s,tomaintainilsreignasthedominantexplanationofthecosmos.Accordingtothetheory,theuniverseburstintobeingasasubmicroscopic,unimaginabledenseknotofpureenergythatflewoutwardinalldirections,emittingradiationasitwent,condensingintoparticlesandthenintoatomsofgas.Overbillionsofyears,thegaswascompressedbygravityintogalaxies,stars,plantsandeventully,evenhumans.Cobeisdesignedtoseejustthebiggeststructures,butastronomerswouldliketoseemuchsmallerhotspotsaswell,theseedsoflocalobjectslikeclustersandsuperclustersofgalaxies.Theyshouldn'thavelongtowait.73)Astrophysicistsworkingwithground-baseddetectorsattheSouthPoleandballoon-borneinstrumentsareclosinginonsuchstructures,andmayreporttheirfindingssoon.74)Ifthesmallhotspotslookasexpected,thatwillbeatriumphforyetanotherscientificidea,arefinementoftheBigBangcalledtheinflationaryuniversetheory.Inflationsaysthatveryearlyon,theuniverseexpandedinsizebymorethanatrilliontrilliontrilliontrillionfoldinmuchlessthanasecond,propelledbyasortofantigravity.75)Oddthoughitsounds,cosmicinflationisascientificallyplausibleconsequenceofsomerespectedideasinelementary-particlephysics,andmanyastrophysicistshavebeenconvincedforthebetterpartofadecadethatitistrue.2Thestandardizededucationalorpsychologicalteststhatarewidelyusedtoaidinselecting,classifying,assigning,orpromotingstudents,employees,andmilitarypersonnelhavebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooks,magazines,thedailypress,andevenincongress.71)Thetargetiswrong,forinattackingthetesls.criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithill-informedorincompetenlusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytools,withcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonableprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillbevaluable,meaningless,orevenmisleadingdependspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser.Allinformedpredictionsoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance:schoolgradesresearchproductive,salesrecords,orwhateverisappropriate.72)Howwellthepredictionswillbevalidatedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamount,reliability,andappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandwisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anyonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationavailableisalwaysincompleteandthatthepredictionsarealwayssubjecttoerror.Standardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquick,objectivemethodofgettingsomekidsofinformationaboutwhatapersonlearned,theskillshehasdeveloped,orthekindsofpersonheis.Theinformationsoobtainedhas,qualitatively,thesameadvantagesandshortcomingsasotherkindsofinformation.73)Whethertousetests,otherkindsofinformation,orbothinaparticularsituationdepends,therefore,upontheevidencefromexperienceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability.74)Ingeneral,thetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenthequalitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedandleasteffectivelywhenwhalistobemeasuredorpredictedcannotbewelldefined.Properlyused,theyprovidearapidmeansofgettingcomparableinformationaboutmanypeople.Sometimestheyidentifystudentswhosehighpotentialhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognized,buttherearemanythings,theydonotdo.75)Forexample,theydonotcompensateforgrosssocialinequality,andthusdonottellhowableanunderprivilegedyoungstermighthavebeenhadhegrownupundermorefavorablecircumstances.第五课时同位语从句的翻译:加“:"同位语从句与定语从句的区别:同位语从句是一句完整的话,不缺少任何成份;定语从句的先行词的数量很多,而同位语的先行词数量则很少,常用的有news、fact、conclusion、idea、suggestion等定语从句需前置:如果定语从句结构简单,信息负载量不大,并且与先行词的关系比较密切,翻译时前置。定语从句后置需要重复先行词。3Thedifferencesinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.71)Someofthesecausesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeinglosomeexlentself-acceleraling.Some,however,arelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionsoftheformscientifictheoryoughttotake,bypersonsinauthority,acttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable;butitisafrighteningtrend.72)ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWar,whenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscienli行cestablishmenlcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Ilcanbepredicted,however,thatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.73)Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequenceinthefulure.Thiskindofsupport,likeallgovernmentsupport,requiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupporting"good"asopposedto"bad"science,butavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generally,theideaofgoodsciencetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.74)However,theworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld'smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.75)Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepast,givingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.4Doanimalshaverights?Thisishowthequestionisusuallyput.Itsoundslikeauseful,ground-clearingwaytostart.71)Actually,itisn't,becauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrights,whichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave.Ononeviewofrights,tobesure,itnecessarilyfollowsthatanimalshavenone.72)Somephilosophersarguethatrightsexistonlywithinasocialcontract,aspartofanexchangeofdutiesandentitlements.Therefore,animalscannothaverights.Theideaofpunishingatigerthatkillssomebodyisabsurd;forexactlythesamereason,soistheideathattigershaverights.However,thisisonlyoneaccount,andbynomeansanuncontestedone.Itdeniesrightsnotonlytoanimalsbutalsotosomepeople forinstance,toinfants,thementallyincapableandfuturegenerations.Inaddition,itisunclearwhatforceacontractcanhaveforpeoplewhoneverconsentedtoit:howdoyoureplytosomebodywhosays"Idon'tlikethiscontract"?Thepointisthis:withoutagreementontherightsofpeople,arguingabouttherightsofanimalsisfruitless.73)Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesattheoutset;itinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwiththeconsiderationhumansextendtootherhumans,orwithnoconsiderationatall.Thisisafalsechoice.Bettertostartwithanother,morefundamental,question:isthewaywetreatanimalsamoralissueatall?Manydenyit74)Arguingfromtheviewthathumansaredifferentfromanimalsineveryrelevantrespect,extremistsofthiskindthinkthatanimalslieoutsidetheareaofmoralchoice.Anyregardforthesufferingofanimalsisseenasamistake asentimentaldisplacementoffeelingthatshouldproperlybedirectedtootherhumans.Thisview,whichholdsthattorturingamonkeyismorallyequivalenttochoppingwood,mayseembravely"logical".Infactitissimplyshallow:theconfusedcentreisrighttorejectit.Themostelementaryformofmoralreasoning theethicalequivalentoflearningtocrawl istoweighother