第一组法律英语

1、Chapter 7 Substantive Due Process实 质 性 正 当 程 序Chapter 9 Fundamental Rights基 本 权 利Part Four Chapter 1 Introduction 程序正当性程序的概念是，正式行动必须符合对个人的最低公正标准，如果得到充分通知的权利和在做出裁定之前的有 意义的听证机会等。 美国的正当法律程序保护范围历经了从刑事到行政、从程序性权利到实体性权利、从特权到权利的变化,其保护标准也包括实体性正当法律程序中的理性基础检验、严格检验标准和中间层次检验标准,以及程序性正当法律程序中的还原立法者意图、利益均衡、最低限度的程序保障

2、等判断方法。 违反正当法律程序的后果可概括为无效、得撤销、得补正三种类型。 于我国而言,借鉴正当法律程序在美国司法审查中的运用,具体确立以事前告知、公平公正、表达意见机会、行政公开为主要内容,原则上应用于所有行政行为的正当法律程序权行政诉讼,以实现在具体化、规范化层面对行政行为的程序性控制。Basic Principle(基本原则）When Is Individualized （区别对待）（区别对待） Adjudication（判决）（判决） RequiredIntentional（故意的（故意的 ）Deprivation（剥夺（剥夺) Negligent(疏忽的）疏忽的） Deprivati

3、onLiberty（自由权）Property（财产）（财产）Chapter 7 Substantive Due Process实 质 性 正 当 程 序Substantive Due Process 实质性正当法律程序的概念首先是由州法院的判决确立起实质性正当法律程序的概念首先是由州法院的判决确立起来的。来的。最引人注目的是纽约州上诉法院的判决，其中最为著名的是1856年怀尼哈默诉人民案的判决。该案起因于一项纽约州禁止出售非医用烈性酒并禁止在住所之外的任何地方储放非用于销售的酒类的法律，纽约州法院认为，“该法的实施，消灭和破坏了这个州的公民拥有烈性酒的财产权”，这恐怕与正当程序条款的精神不符。

4、这一判决的意义在于纽约州法院用实质性正当法律程序代替了自然法，对立法权进行实质性的制约。9年后联邦最高法院在威尼诉哈默案中首次将正当法律程序条款作为实体法条款使用。至此，正当法律程序开始成为一种防范立法机关对私人财产权不合理干涉的有力工具。1866年，国会提出了第14条宪法修正案，1867年该修正案被宣布生效。纽约州法院审理怀尼哈默案的推理最终为包括联邦最高法院在内的美国法院所普遍采纳，正当法律程序成为了一项真正的宪法制度。第14条修正案是划时代条款，“代表了一场真正的宪法革命”。Substantive Due ProcessRelationship Between Substantive D

5、ue Process and Equal Protection The Due Process Clause （正当程序条款)and Equal Protection Clause guarantee the fairness of laws substantive due process guarantees that laws will be reasonable and not arbitrary(随意的）,and equal protection guarantees that similarly situated person will be treated alike. Both

6、guarantees require the Court to review the substance of the law rather than the procedures employed.Substantive Due ProcessWhat Standard of Review Will the Court Apply?Substantive Due Process The Court employs one of three tests in reviewing laws under these clauses, depending on the circumstances 美

7、国最高法院发展出三种司法审查标准以决定某法律或某政府行为是否剥夺人民之法律平等保护的权利。2.Intermediate Scrutiny3.Rational Basis (Minimal Scrutiny)Substantive Due Process The Court uses the strict scrutiny standard when a suspect classification or fundamental right (these terms will be discussed infra) is involved. Under the strict scrutiny s

8、tandard, a law will be upheld （支持，维护）only if it is necessary to achieve a compelling（引起兴趣的）or overriding（最主要的） government purpose. The Court will always consider whether less burdensome（负担的，累赘的） means for accomplishing the legislative（立法权的） goal are available. Most government action examined under t

9、his test fails.Substantive Due Process2.Intermediate ScrutinyThe Court uses intermediate scrutiny when a classification based on gender or legitimacy(合法合理) is involved. Under the rational basis(合理的基础） standard, a law will be upheld（被支持） if it is substantially related to an important government purpo

10、se. 3.Rational Basis (Minimal Scrutiny)The rational basis standard is used whenever the other two standards are not applicable (i.e. most legislation). Under the rational basis standard, a law will be upheld if it is rationally related to legitimate（合理的） interest. It is difficult to fail this test,

11、so most governmental action examined under this standard is upheld unless it is arbitrary（任意的） or irrational（不合理的）.Chapter 9 Fundamental Rights基 本 权 利公民权利指作为一个国家的公民所享有的公民资格和与公民资格相关的一系列政治、经济和文化权利。公民权利是因为公民身份而取得的。在个国家居住的外国人和无国籍人不能享有公民权利，但可以受到居住国法律一定程度的保护。公民权利的种类涉及到公民的政治权利、经济权利、文化权利和社会权利等诸多方面，这些权利都由公民国

12、籍所在国的政府为本国公民所承诺的特殊的责任。般来说，一个国家宪法和法律中所规定的政治权利必须由具有本国国籍的公民享有，而其他权利，特别是经济权利，外国人或无国籍人也可以在遵守居住国法律规定前提下享有。Fundamental RightsFundamental RightsRight of Privacy(隐私权)Various private rights, including marriage, sexual relations, abortion, and childrearing, are fundamental rights. Thus, regulations affecting t

13、hese rights are reviews under the strict seruiny standard and will be uphold only if they are necessary to a compelling interest.MarriageThe rights of a male and female to enter into (and, probably, to dissolve) a marriage relationship is a fundamental rights. Although not all cases examining marria

14、ge regulations clearly use the compelling interest standard , a law prohibiting a class of adults from marrying is likely to be invalidated unless the government can demonstrate that the law is narrowly tailored to promote a compelling or overriding or, at least, important interest.Fundamental Right

15、sUse of ContraceptivesA state cannot prohibit distribution of nonmedical contraceptives to adults except thought licensed pharmacists, nor prohibit sales of such contraceptives to persons under 16 who do not have approval of a licensed physician.AbortionThe supreme Court has held that the right of p

16、rivacy includes the right of a woman to have an abortion under certain circumstances without undue interference from the states. Roe v.Wade,410U.S.113(1993)However, because the Court has held that the states have a compelling interest in protecting the health of both the woman and the fetus that may

17、 become a child, it is difficult to apply the normal “strict scrutiny” analysis to abortion regulations since these two compelling interests may conflict with each other and with the regarding abortions and the Justices have not come to agreement on any applicable stangard.Right to VoteFundamental R

18、ightsThe right of all United States citizens over 18 years of age is mentioned in the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Nineteenth, is Twenty-Fourth, and Twenty-Sixty Amendments. It extends to all national and state government elections, including primaries. The right is fundamental; thus, restrictions on voti

19、ng, other than on the basic of age, residency, or c i t i z e n s h i p , a r e i n v a l i d u n l e s s t h e y c a n p a s s s t r i c t s c r u t i n y. International TravelThe Supreme court has not yet decleared that the right to internatioal travel is fundamental, although the right appears to

20、 be protected from arbitrary federal interference by the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. Securityhe Court has held that this right is not violated when the federal government refuses to pay Socialty benefits to persons who leave the country. The test is “mere rationality, not strict scrut

21、tiny.”Congress may give executive branch the power to revoke the passport of a person whose conduct in another countrypresents a danger to United States foreign policy. The Treasury Department, with congressional authorization, could restrict travel to and from Cuba without violating the Fifth Amend

22、ment.Part Four Chapter 1 Introduction 合同是当事人或当事双方之间设立、变更、终止民事关系的协议。依法成立的合同，受法律保护。广义合同指所有法律部门中确定权利、义务关系的协议。狭义合同指指一切民事合同。还有最狭义合同仅指民事合同中的债权合同。中华人民共和国民法通则第85条：合同是当事人之间设立、变更、终止民事关系的协议。依法成立的合同，受法律保护。中华人民共和国合同法第2条：合同是平等主体的自然人、法人、其他组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议。婚姻、收养、监护等有关身份关系的协议，适用其他法律的规定.ContractsContracts are

23、at the center of international business. They govern(支配）the relationships between parties by setting forth the rights and duties of each party. They may also include provisions(准备）to resolve(解决)disputes(争议)that may arise in performing the contract.Contracts When writing contracts, many lawyers simpl

24、e take an agreement from an earlier deal and update it for the new deal. This will work when the earlier deal was substantially(大体上) similar to the new deal, but often the earlier contracts may include terms that are irrelevant(无关系的) to the new deal. When the lawyer does not really understand those

25、new terms, the lawyer may be afraid to delete them. But leaving irrelevant terms in a contract can also create problems if there is a dispute（争论） later about performance of the contract.Contract is a course（课程） that law students usually take in the first year of law school in the Unites States. Many

26、 of the words and concepts（观念） learned in that course appear in later school course involving (包括) commercial (商业的) sales, corporate(公司) law, international business transactions (交易), securities law, taxation (税) of particular transactions, business franchise (特权) law, and licensing. The law of cont

27、racts is taught from common law concepts of contract law, but concepts from the Uniform Commercial Code often appear in standard courses. Unfortunately, concepts from the Convention on the International Sales of Goods are often taught only in “specialty” courses such as “International Business Trans

28、actions.” Many U.S. lawyer never learn that there is an international treaty (条约) that governs (影响) transactions made with parties from other signatory (签约的) countries.ContractsAlthough many of the principles of contract law will be familiar to lawyers trained in civil law countries, some principlessuch as “consideration”may cause some difficulty becau