语言学第一章chapter1

1、A Course on Linguistics for Students of English主讲教师：马应聪The requirements for this course Class attendance Before-class preparation & Classroom discussion Fulfillment of the assignment Examination The goals for this course To get a scientific view on language To understand some basic theories on l

2、inguistics To understand the applications of the linguistic theories To prepare for the future research work Levels Remembering Understanding Appreciating CreativeA list of reference books1.语言学教程 (英语版)，胡壮麟，北京大学出版社。2.语言学概论，王德春，上海外语教育出版社。3.现代英语语言学概论（英语版），戴炜栋，上海外语教育出版社。4.现代语言学，何兆熊 梅德明，外语教学与研究出版社。5.简明英语

3、语言学教程（英语版）， 戴炜栋等，上海外语教育出版社。6.语言学和语言的应用 ，王宗炎，上海外语教育出版社。7.语言学， H.G.Widdowson，上海外语教育出版社。8.语言学入门（英语版），Stuart C. Poole，外语教学与研究出版社。Chapter 1. Introduction Linguistics (Contents) Language Major concepts in linguistics Exercises and discussion questions1. Linguistics 1.1 Definition of linguistics 1.2 Princi

4、ples of linguistic studies 1.3 Use of studying linguistics 1.4 Scope of linguistics1.1 What is linguistics? (p. 1)-Linguistics is the scientific or systematic study of language. e.g. observation, generalization, data-collection, methodology, hypothesis, testing, conclusion, etc.-A person who studies

5、 linguistics is known as a linguist. 1.2 Four principles of linguistic studies(p. 1) Exhaustiveness/adequacy Consistency Economy Objectivity (客观性客观性) (i) Adequacy of observation (ii) Adequacy of description (iii) Adequacy of explanation 1.3 Use of studying linguistics (p. 3-4) Do you think we can th

6、ink as clearly without language as with language? Why should we call the thing we sit on chair? Cant we call chair table and table chair? How is it that children dont seem to make a big effort in learning their first language while we adults have to work very hard to learn a second language? For a l

7、anguage student For a teacher of foreign languages For a researcher1.4 Scope of linguistics (p. 4-8)Microlinguistics (contents) lPhoneticslPhonologylMorphologylSyntaxlSemanticslPragmaticsMacrolinguistics (宏观语言学宏观语言学)lApplied linguisticslSociolinguisticslPsycholinguistics1. Phonetics-speech sound (de

8、scription, classification, transcription) Phonology-sound patterns of languages Morphology-the form of words (happiness, 山羊山羊) Syntax-the rules governing the combination of words into sentence (tree diagram, 下雨了。下雨了。) Semantics-the meaning of language (when the meaning of language is conducted in th

9、e context of language use-Pragmatics) Applied linguistics-linguistics and language teaching Sociolinguistics- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use (被就业，不明觉厉被就业，不明觉厉) Psycholinguistics-linguistic behavior and psychological process Anthropological linguistics, Neurolinguistics, C

10、omputational linguistics (machine translation), etc. Stylistics, text linguistics, etc. Cognitive linguistics2. Language (research object) 2.1 Definition of language 2.2 Origin of language 2.3 Design features of language 2.4 Functions of languageSapirs definition (1921) “Language is a purely human a

11、nd non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”Halls definition (1968) Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”Chomskys definiti

12、on (1957) “From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”2.1 Definition of language (p. 8-9)Language can be generally defined as: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicat

13、ion.a. Language is a system Systematic- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; cant be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.b. language is arbitrary (任意性任意性) Arbitrary- there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing. e.g. penc. Language is symbo

14、lic in nature (象征性象征性) Symbolic- words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”-Shakespeare d. Language is primarily vocal Vocal- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. e. Langu

15、age is human-specific Human-specific- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.2.2 Origin of language (p. 9-10) Ding-Dong Theory Sing-Song Theory Pooh-Pooh Theory Yo-He-Ho Theory The Evolutionary Theory 在在圣经圣经中有这样一个故事。很久以前，地球中有这样一

16、个故事。很久以前，地球上的人只讲一种语言，他们沟通没有障碍，彼此之间上的人只讲一种语言，他们沟通没有障碍，彼此之间没有隔阂。他们集体决定要修建一座通天塔，从地面没有隔阂。他们集体决定要修建一座通天塔，从地面直通天堂。工程进展得十分顺利，通天塔越建越高，直通天堂。工程进展得十分顺利，通天塔越建越高，高耸入云。上帝在天上看到了，他为人类的强大和统高耸入云。上帝在天上看到了，他为人类的强大和统一感到惊恐，人都能够把塔建到天上，他们还有什么一感到惊恐，人都能够把塔建到天上，他们还有什么做不到的呢？于是上帝来到人间，变乱了人们的语言。做不到的呢？于是上帝来到人间，变乱了人们的语言。人们各自操起不同的语言

17、，感情无法交流，思想很难人们各自操起不同的语言，感情无法交流，思想很难统一，出现互相猜疑，各执己见，争吵斗殴。这就是统一，出现互相猜疑，各执己见，争吵斗殴。这就是人类之间误解的开始，修造工程因语言纷争而停止了，人类之间误解的开始，修造工程因语言纷争而停止了，通天塔终于半途而废。人们分裂了，按照不同的语言通天塔终于半途而废。人们分裂了，按照不同的语言形成许多部族，又分散到世界各地。形成许多部族，又分散到世界各地。2.3 Design features of language (p. 10-13) Arbitrariness Duality Productivity/Creativity Inte

18、rchangeability/Recursiveness Displacement Cultural transmissiona. Arbitrariness -No intrinsic (motivated, natural or logical) connection between sounds and meanings. e.g. the sound of a morpheme and its meaning the syntactic level language is naturally arbitrary. e.g.signifiersignified arbitrariness

19、 is primary, motivation/iconicity（理据性/象似性）is secondary.Pictograph or onomatopoeia is a rarity in language.e.g. rumble, crackle, bang; Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdangSome compound words are not entirely arbitrary. e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner.c. They are also arbitrary forUnless we

20、ve learned we cannot identify the relations.Different languages have different forms for the same signification.a. Even the same language has different forms for the same referent. arbitrariness keeps language productive. arbitrariness resides in every level of the language.e.g. sound and meaning; s

21、yntactic level structure, as a sign, is also arbitrary. language at the syntactic level is relatively motivated. arbitrariness and conventionalism (规约性) e.g. enter (into) b. Duality (double articulation) -By duality it meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the pri

22、mary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. (Lyons, 1982:20) Lower level-sounds (meaningless) Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning).c. Productivity/creativity -Peculiar to human languages, users of language ca

23、n understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.d. Displacement -Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real

24、or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.e.g. Long long ago, e. Interchangeability -Interchageability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can both exchanged at ease. f. Cultural tra

25、nsmission -Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and l

26、earning, rather than by instinct. The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. 2.4 Functions of language (p. 13-14)Jakobson (1960): contextREFERENTIALaddresser message addresseeEMOTIVE POETIC CONATIVE contact (意动功能)PH

27、ATIC code (语码) METALINGUAL (元语言功能) Phatic (寒暄寒暄): establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. Directive (指令指令): get the hearer to do something. Informative (信息信息): give information about facts. Interrogative (疑问疑问): get information from others. Expressive (表达表达): express feelings and a

28、ttitudes of the speaker. Performative (施为施为): language is used to do things, to perform actions. 3. Some important distinctions (p. 15-18) Descriptive and prescriptive Synchronic and diachronic Syntagmatic and paradigmatic Functionalism and formalism Langue and parole Competence and performanceDescr

29、iptive (描写描写) vs prescriptive (规定规定) Descriptive - describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive -lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Synchronic (共时共时) vs diachronic (历时历时) Synchronic st

30、udy- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) Syntagmatic (组合组合) and paradigmatic (聚合聚合) Horizontal lexical: sytax: relationship Vertical relationship（Sauss

31、ure）Functionalism (功能主义功能主义) vs formalism (形式主义形式主义) Functionalism - the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism - the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure) Langue(语言语言) - the ab

32、stract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole(言语言语) - the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence and performance (N. Chomsky) Competence(语言能力语言能力) - the

33、 ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance(语言运用语言运用) - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.4. Discussion1. The followi

34、ng two sentences are said to be ambiguous in meaning. How many interpretations could you give to either of them? What can you do to resolve such ambiguity？ He turned in his bed.a) They gave preference to young men and women.2. Identify the units that have reference and the units that indicate struct

35、ure.I saw Mary when I went to the library.3. How would you judge the following four sentences? Are they good or bad sentences? The moon is made of brown eggs. Moon brown the is of made egges. 慢走，您。慢走，您。 为了安全，给您。为了安全，给您。4. How would you classify the following signs? What do these signs mean to you an

36、d how do you come to know their meanings？5. If you saw smoke coming out of a house, what conclusion would you draw and how do you come to such a conclusion?6. What does a flushed complexion signify for the physician or a lover?7. Onomatopoetic words are said to be iconic by some people. For the cuckoo, the sequence of English sounds is ku:ku:, and the sequence of Chinese sounds is “bugu”. Do you think both words a