耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论 第4课 中英文课件(

1、耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论 第4课 中英文课件(2011-04-28 14:41:01转载标签： 心理学 分类： 心理学资料 我想在这节课的开始先回头讲讲弗洛依德I actually want to begin by going back to Freud 解决一下上节课遗留的几个问题and hitting a couple of loose ends. 我周三上课的时候跳过了部分内容There was a point in my lecture on Wednesday where I skipped over some parts. 我当时说"没时间讲了" 就跳过没讲I

2、 said, "We don't have time for this" and I just whipped past it. 可整个周末 我都因此而寝食难安And I couldn't sleep over the weekend. I've been tormented. 我不该跳过它们 所以现在我要讲一下I shouldn't have skipped that and I want to hit- 先告诉大家我当时为什么跳过没讲Let me tell you why I skipped it. 我所跳过的是关于The discuss

3、ion I skipped was the discussion of "我们为何会有无意识" 的讨论why we would have an unconscious at all. 我当时正在讲So, I was talking about 在科学上颇有名望的弗洛依德理论the scientifically respectable ideas of Freud 我想给大家讲一些新的and I want to talk about some new ideas 关于"无意识为何会存在"的理论about why there could be an unco

4、nscious. 我之所以没讲是因为Now, the reason why I skipped it is 我不能肯定这是考虑这个问题的最佳方式I'm not sure this is the best way to look at the question. 正如我们将会在这门课中了解到的As we will learn throughout the course, 尤其是绝大多数的大脑活动by far the vast majority of what our brains do, 绝大多数的心理活动the vast majority of what our minds do, 其

5、实都是无意识的 是无法察觉到的is unconscious and we're unaware of it. 因此 问题或许不该是So the right question to ask may not be, "为什么有些心理活动是无意识的""Why are some things unconscious?" 而应该是"为什么心理活动的一小部分but rather, why is this tiny subset of mental life- 为什么这一小部分是有意识的"why is this conscious? 另一方

6、面On the other hand, 这些关于无意识功能的主张these claims about the utility of unconsciousness, 是很具有煽动性很有趣的I think, are provocative and interesting. 所以我想很快地来给你们大家讲一下So I just wanted to quickly share them with you. 那么 从进化的观点来看So, the question is, from an evolutionary standpoint, 要问的问题便是"无意识为何得以进化""

7、Why would an unconscious evolve?" 一些心理学家与生物学家们所给出的答案And an answer that some psychologists and biologists have given 是欺骗is deception. 大多数动物都会有一些欺骗行为So, most animals do some deception. 而广义上的欺骗是以愚弄的方式And deception defined broadly is simply 使他人相信虚假之事to act or be in some way 认为虚假之事是真实 的that fools ot

8、hers into believing or thinking 或是使他人对虚假之事做出反应or responding to something that's false. 举一个欺骗的实例There's physical examples of deception. 当黑猩猩受到威胁When threatened, chimpanzees- 它们的毛发会竖起来their hair stands up on end 使得他们看上去更加强壮and that makes them look bigger 从而使其他黑猩猩误以为它们to fool others to thinking

9、 they're more dangerous 比原先想象中更加危险than they are. 在深海中生活着琵琶鱼There's an angler fish at the bottom of the ocean 这种鱼的头顶会长出鱼竿状的长刺that has a rod sticking up from the top of its head 用于引诱和捕获其他鱼类with a lure to capture other fish 让它们误认为那是食物to fool them in thinking that this is something edible 然后它们自己

10、就被吃掉了and then to themselves be devoured. 总的来说灵长类动物 特别是人类But humans, primates in general but particularly humans, 都是欺骗大师are masters of deception. 我们不断地利用我们的心理We use our minds 行为和动作and our behaviors and our actions 去哄骗他人相信那些虚假的事情continually to try to trick people into believing what's not true. 比如

11、 我们总是试着去欺骗他人We try to trick people, for instance, 使他人相信我们比实际更加into believing that we're 强壮 聪明 性感tougher, smarter, sexier, 更加可靠或是更加值得信赖等等more reliable, more trustworthy and so on, than we really are. 社会心理学中也有很大一部分内容And a large part of social psychology 在关注我们向他人展现自己的方式concerns the way in which we

12、present ourselves 人们会尽力使积极印象最大化to other people so as to make the maximally positive impression 即使留下的印象是虚假的even when that impression isn't true. 但同时At the same time,though, 我们也进化出了很好的欺骗检测机制we've also evolved very good lie detection mechanisms. 因此 不仅存在着要求我对你说谎So not only is there evolutionary

13、pressure for me 的进化压力to lie to you, 比如 如果我们之间存有冲突 for me to persuade you for instance, that if we're going to have a conflict- 当你威胁我时if you are threatening me 我会说"别吓唬我 我可不是吃素""Don't threaten me, I am not the sort of man you could screw around with" 而且还存在着要求你辨别谎言的进化压力But t

14、here's evolutionary pressure for you to look 你会说 "不 你肯定不行and say, "No. You are the sort of man you could screw around with. 我看得出来的"I can tell." 那么 怎样才能成为一个好骗子呢So how do you become a good liar? 无意识在这里扮演了重要的角色And here's where the unconscious comes in. 我们假定The hypothesis is:

15、 最好的谎言是能够骗到我们自己的谎言the best lies are lies we tell ourselves. 一个行 骗高手在通常情况下You're a better liar, more generally, 会对自己所说的谎言深信不疑if you believe the lie that you're telling. 阿尔弗雷德?希区柯克的一个故事 This could be illustrated 很好地阐释了这个道理with a story about Alfred Hitchcock. 故事是这样的The story goes- 他痛恨与童星共事 但又时常

16、被迫合作He hated working with child actors but he often had to. 有一次And the story goes- 和他合作的一个小演员竟哭不出来He was dealing with a child actor who simply could not cry. 最后他沮丧极了 走到那个小演员身边And, finally frustrated, Hitchcock went to the actor, 俯下身子凑到他耳边说leaned over, whispered in his ear, "你爸妈刚把你丢在这了"Your

17、 parents have left you 他们再也不回来了"and they're never coming back." 那孩子立刻泣不成声The kid burst into tears. 希区柯克说"开拍" 录制顺利进行Hitchcock said, "Roll'em" and filmed the kid. 如果你能看到那个孩子 你一定会说And the kid, if you were to see him, you'd say, "天呐 这孩子看起来真伤心啊""Th

18、at's-Boy, he's-he really looks as if he's sad" 因为他本来就伤心because he was. 如果我在这里举行一个竞赛If I had a competition 谁最能将痛苦表演的和真的一样where I'd give $100,000 to the person 谁就能拿到10万美元who looks the most as if they are in pain, 那么最好用的一招莫过于拿根笔it is a very good tactic to take a pen 狠狠地戳进你的腹股沟and j

19、am it into your groin 因为此时的你看上去真的because you will look extremely persuasively 足以使他人相信你非常痛苦as if you are in pain. 如果我想让你相信我爱你If I want to persuade you that I love you, 永远都不离开你 你什么都可以信任我would never leave you, you can trust me with everything, 或许最好的策略便是我自己对此深信不疑it may be a superb tactic for me to belie

20、ve it. 所有 对于无意识进化的解释And so, this account of the evolution of the unconscious 便是某些动机和目标is that certain motivations and goals, 尤其是那些邪恶的动机和目标particularly sinister ones, 最好是无意识的are better made to be unconscious 因为如果个体察觉不到because if a person doesn't know 他们所拥有的动机和目标的话they have them 这些动机和目标也就不会被他人识破th

21、ey will not give them away. 这个我们先放在这里 等到我们探讨And this is something I think we should return to later on 社会交往与社会关系的时候再回头来看when we talk about social interaction and social relationships. 弗洛依德的另一个故事-One other thing on Freud- 其实是个恶搞他的故事just a story of the falsification of Freud. 周日我带我的小儿子去玩 回家的路上I was ta

22、king my younger child home from a play date on Sunday 他突然问我and he asked me out of the bl ue, "你为什么不能和你的父母结婚?""Why can't you marry your mother or your father?" 向一个孩子解释这个问题其实挺困难的Now, that's actually a difficult question to ask- to answer for a child, 但我还是尽力给了他一个答案but I trie

23、d my best to give him an answer. 之后我又想到弗洛依德的理论And then I said-then I thought back on the Freud lecture 然后我就问他and so I asked him, "如果你谁都能娶 你会选择娶谁?""If you could marry anybody you want, who would it be?" 我想根据俄狄浦斯情结imagining he'd make explicit the Oedipal complex 他会毫不犹豫地选择他的妈妈an

24、d name his mother. 不过出乎意料的是 他想了一会说Instead, he paused for a moment and said, "我想娶一只驴子"I would marry a donkey 和一大包花生"and a big bag of peanuts." 他的父母都是心理学家Both his parents are psychologists 他恨透了这些问题and he hates these questions 所以他会时不时的忽悠我们一下and at times he just screws around with us

25、. 好了Okay. 上一堂课我们从弗洛依德讲起Last class I started with Freud 现在我要开始讲斯金纳了and now I want to turn to Skinner. 斯金纳的理论And the story of Skinner and science 与弗洛依德的理论有些不同is somewhat different from the story of Freud. 弗洛依德是精神分析的Freud developed and championed 提出者与拥护者the theory of psychoanalysis by himself. 就像是一个科学发

26、明的专利享有者It is as close as you could find in science to a solitary invention. 显然 他利用了各种资源Obviously, he drew upon all sorts of sources 还总结了前人的成果and predecessors 但精神分析依然被认为but psychoanalysis is identified 是由弗洛伊德提出的as Freud's creation. 行为主义则不同Behaviorism is different. 行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of

27、 thought 远在斯金纳提出他的理论之前就已经存在that was there long before Skinner, 受到了众多心理学家的拥护championed by psychologists 比如约翰?华生like John Watson, for instance. 斯金纳算是这一学派中的晚辈了Skinner came a bit late into this 但是何斯金纳能够被我们所熟知but the reason why we've heard of Skinner 能够声名远播的原因就在于and why Skinner is so well known 他将这些观

28、点进行了一番整理is he packaged these notions. 他扩展了先前的观点He expanded upon them; 并将它们出版发行he publicized them; 他科学地发展了这些观点he developed them scientifically 并同时将这些观点呈现给了and presented them both to the scientific community 学术界和社会大众and to the popular community. 在上世纪60到70年代之间的美国社会And sociologically in the 1960s and 19

29、70s, in the United States, 行为主义极为盛行behaviorism was incredibly well known 斯金纳也得以名声大噪and so was Skinner. 他就像现 在上脱口秀的明星一样有名He was the sort of person you would see on talk shows. 他的书登上了畅销榜首His books were bestsellers. 言归正传 行为主义的核心Now, at the core of behaviorism 由三个非常极端又很有趣的观点组成are three extremely radical

30、 and interesting views. 第一个观点是 它非常强调学习的作用The first is a strong emphasis on learning. 行为主义的观点认为The strong view of behaviorism 你的知识 你的一切is everything you know, everything you are, 都是经验的产物is the result of experience. 人性是根本不存在的There's no real human nature. 相反 人类是具有无限可塑性的Rather, people are infinitely

31、 malleable. 约翰?华生有一段非常有名的话There's a wonderful quote from John Watson 这段话是约翰?华生根据and in this quote john Watson is paraphrasing 耶稣会所宣扬的一段著名鼓吹改写而来a famous boast by the Jesuits. 耶稣会曾宣称The Jesuits used to claim, "给我一个孩子 待他7岁之时"Give me a child until the age of seven 我会将他锻造成一个男人"and I

32、9;ll show you the man," 也就是说 他们能够把一个孩子that they would take a child 培养成他们想要的任何样子and turn him into anything they wanted. 华生将此鼓吹加以扩展 他说到And Watson expanded on this boast, 给我一打健全的婴儿Give me a dozen healthy infants, 只要给予合适的条件well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up 我就可以and I'll gua

33、rantee to take any one at random 把他们变成and train them to become any type of specialist I might select 医生 律师 艺术家 企业家doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, 乃至乞丐和小偷chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, 而不用去考虑他的天赋 倾向regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, 能力 祖先的职业与种族abilities, vocations and rac

34、e of his ancestors. 你们可以从中看出Now, you could imagine you could see in this 这是一个极具感染力的观点a tremendous appeal to this view 因为在某种意义上because Watson has 华生是一个极端的平等主义者an extremely egalitarian view in a sense. 如果不存在人性If there's no human nature, 那么一群人因种族或性别then there's no sense in which one group of hu

35、mans 优于另一群的人的说法by dint of their race or their sex 便纯属无稽之谈could be better than another group. 华生明确地指出了这一点And Watson was explicit. 人类的自然属性并不存在任何差异None of those facts about people will ever make any difference. 个体差异源于他所受到的不同教育与待遇What matters to what you are is what you learn and how you're treated.

36、 因此华生断言And so, Watson claimed 他只需通过一定的方式he could create anybody in any way simply 便能将婴儿培养成各种类型的人by treating them in a certain fashion. 行为主 义的第二个观点A second aspect of behaviorism 是反心理主义was anti-mentalism. 我的意思是And what I mean by this is 行为主义者沉迷于"科学"的理念之中the behaviorists were obsessed with 难以

37、自拔the idea of doing science 他们主要针对的是弗洛依德and they felt, largely in reaction to Freud, 他们认为那些所谓的内在心理状态that claims about internal mental states 如欲望 意愿 目标 情感等等like desires, wishes, goals, emotions and so on, 都是不科学的are unscientific. 这些不可见 定义模糊的东西These invisible, vague things 不能被划入严谨的科学范畴里can never form t

38、he basis of a serious science. 因此 行为主义者的目标And so, the behaviorist manifesto 是建立一门科学would then be to develop a science 将一切不可观测的事情都排除在外without anything that's unobservable 取而代之的是应用and instead use notions 诸如刺激 反应 强化 惩罚like stimulus and response and reinforcement and punishment 以及表示现实世界和客观事件的环境and e

39、nvironment that refer to real world 之类的概念来进行研究and tangible events. 最后 行为主义者认为Finally, behaviorists believed 生物种群之间并不存在太大的差别there were no interesting differences across species. 行为主义者可能会承认人类能够做到A behaviorist might admit that a human can do things 一些老鼠或鸽子无法做到的事情that a rat or pigeon couldn't 但他们或许只

40、会说but a behaviorist might just say, "它们只不过是在一般性联想学习能力上"Look. Those are just general associative powers 有所差异而已"that differ" 甚至他们干脆否认Or they may even deny it. 他们会说 "人和老鼠根本没有区别They might say, "Humans and rats aren't different at all. 只不过相较于老鼠It's just humans tend t

41、o live 人类生活在刺激更加丰富的环境中罢了"in a richer environment than rats." 从这个理论观点中From that standpoint, from that theoretical standpoint, 可以得出一种研究方法comes a methodological approach 即 如果人类与动物并无差别which is, if they're all the same 那你就能通过研究非人类动物的学习过程then you could study human learning 来研究人类的学习过程by study

42、ing nonhuman animals. 这也是行为主义者的常用研究方法And that's a lot of what they did. 好了 下面我们来讲讲Okay. I'm going to frame my introduction my discussion 行为的三个主要的学习原则of behaviors in terms of the three main learning principles 这三个学习原则被认为能够解释that they argue can explain 所有的人类心理活动all of human mental life, 所有的人类行

43、为all of human behavior. 之后 我还想讲讲对行为主义的反对And then, I want to turn to objections to behaviorism 但这三个原则是非常重要的but these three principles are powerfu l 也是很有意思的and very interesting. 第一个原则是习惯化The first is habituation. 这是最简单的学习形式This is the very simplest form of learning. 它在学术上被描述为And what this is is techni

44、cally described as 由于重复暴露在刺激环境中a decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli 而造成对该刺激反应倾向的降低that are familiar due to repeated exposure. "喂""Hey!" "喂""Hey!" 突如其来的噪音吓了大家一跳The sudden noise startles but as it 但听到第二声的时候 就没那么吃惊了as you hear it a second time it start

45、les less. 第三遍时 就变成我自己在这犯傻了The third time is just me being goofy. 这是因为你对这些事情已经习惯了It's just-It's-You get used to things. 习惯化在我们的日常生活中随处可见And this, of course, is common enough in everyday life. 我们习惯了钟的滴答声和车来人往的噪音We get used to the ticking of a clock or to noise of traffic 但这却是一种非常重要的学习形式but it&

46、#39;s actually a very important form of learning 我们不妨试想一下无法进行习惯化的情形because imagine life without it. 试想你在生活中无法习惯任何事情 Imagine life where you never got used to anything, 要有人突然跳出来向你挥手where suddenly somebody steps forward and waves their hand 你肯定吓得惊叫 "哇"and you'd go, "Woah," 然后他们再

47、跟你挥手 你又惊叫"哇"and then they wave their hand again and you'd go, "Whoah," 然后你就不停地-and you keep- 或是在你听到响亮的钟摆声后很惊奇地说And there's the loud ticking of a clock and you say, "嗯""Hmmm." 但实际上人类和动物都不会这个样子And that's not the way animals or humans work. 你会习惯于很多事情Y

48、ou get used to things. 而习惯化实际上也是至关重要的And it's actually critically important to get used to things 因为这是一种非常有用的适应机制because it's a useful adaptive mechanism 可以让你注意到新鲜事物to keep track on new events and objects. 能够注意到新鲜事物的出现是非常重要的It's important to notice something when it's new 因为你需要确定它是否会

49、对你造成伤害because then you have to decide whether it's going to harm you, 需要确定如何去处理这个新鲜刺激how to deal with it, to attend to it, 但你不能一直去注意它but you can't keep on noticing it. 事实上And, in fact, 如果它在环境中出现的时间足够长久的话you should stop noticing it 你就不该再去一直注意它了after it's been in the environment for long e

50、nough. 所以习惯化算是一种学习So, this counts as learning 是因为这种学习是基于经验而发生的because it happens through experience. 习惯化是通过经验而进行学习的一种方式It's a way to learn through experience, 是通过经验改变你思维方式的一种方法to change y our way of thinking through experience. 而且它还是非常有用的And also, it's useful 因为危险刺激会吸引到你的注意because harmful st

51、imuli are noticed 但当某物被视为环境的一部分时but when something has shown itself to be part of the environment 你便不会再去注意到该物体you don't notice it anymore. 习惯化的存在非常重要 原因有很多The existence of habituation is important for many reasons. 原因之一就是One thing it's important for is 聪明的发展心理学家们将习惯化clever developmental psyc

52、hologists have used habituation 作为研究人类as a way to study people, 研究诸如非人类动物或是婴儿这样creatures who can't talk 无法进行言语表达的生物like nonhuman animals, 的一种方式and young babies. 等我们在周三探讨发展心理学时And when I talk on Wednesday about developmental psychology 我会向大家讲述心理学家们I'll show different ways 应用习惯化in which psycho

53、logists have used habituation 来研究婴儿心理的不同的方法to study the minds of young babies. 学习的第二种形式The second sort of learning 被称为经典条件作用is known as classical conditioning. 一般来说And what this is in a very general sense 经典条件作用是指在一个刺激is the learning of an association 和另一个刺激之间形成联结between one stimulus and another sti

54、mulus, 这里的刺激是一个专业术语where stimulus is a technical term 意思是环境中出现的事件meaning events in the environment 比如某种味道 声音或景观like a certain smell or sound or sight. 经典条件作用是巴甫洛夫提出的It was thought up by Pavlov. 这便是巴甫洛夫的那条著名的狗This is Pavlov's famous dog 这是一个科学研究中的意外and it's an example of scientific serendipit

55、y. 在研究的最初 巴甫洛夫Pavlov, when he started this research, 对学习行为毫无兴趣had no interest at all in learning. 他研究的是唾液的分泌He was interested in saliva. 为了弄到唾液 他找来了几条狗And to get saliva he had to have dogs. 他给狗套上了一些装置And he had to attach something to dogs 来收集狗的唾液用以研究so that their saliva would pour out so he could st

56、udy saliva. 他研究唾液分泌的初衷我们不得而知No idea why he wanted to study saliva, 但他却因为这个研究而有所发现but he then discovered something. 他的做法是What he would do is 给狗喂食 让狗分泌唾液he'd put food powder in the dog's mouth to generate saliva. 他注意到But Pavlov observed that 当给它喂食的人when somebody entered the room 进屋时who typical

57、ly gave him the food powder, 狗便开始分泌唾液the dog-the food powder saliva would start to come out. 稍后And later on if you 在喂食前或者喂食过程中right before or right during you give the dog some food 你摇铃you-you ping a bell 铃声就 会加速唾液的分泌the bell will cause the saliva to come forth. 这是他在研究时所使用的仪器And, in fact, this is th

58、e apparatus that he used for his research. 他通过区分两种条件作用He developed the theory of classical conditioning 两种刺激反应关系by making a distinction between two sorts of conditioning, 提出了经典条件作用理论two sorts of stimulus response relationships. 一个是无条件作用One is unconditioned. 无条件作用是指An unconditioned is when an uncondi

59、tioned stimulus 无条件刺激会引起无条件反应gives rise to an unconditioned response. 这是我们的本能And this is what you start off with. 如果有人用棍子戳你So, if somebody pokes you with a stick and you say, 你会因为疼而叫出来"Ouch," because it hurts, 戳的动作和你的喊叫the poking and the "Ouch" 这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反射is an unconditioned

60、 stimulus causing an unconditioned response. 这些行为无需学习You didn't have to learn that. 巴甫洛夫给狗喂食When Pavlov put food powder in the dog's mouth 狗会分泌唾液and saliva was generated, 这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反应that's an unconditioned stimulus giving rise to an unconditioned response. 但学习会在条件刺激与条件反应之间But what h

61、appens through learning is that another association develops 建立起另一种联结that between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. 比如So when Pavlov, for instance- 比如 在条件作用形成之前Well, when Pavlov, for instance, started before conditioning 只是简单的存在着无条件刺激 即食物there was simply an unconditioned stimulu

62、s, the food in the mouth, 以及无条件反应 即唾液and an unconditioned response, saliva. 此时的铃声什么都不是The bell was nothing. 只是一个中性刺激The bell was a neutral stimulus. 但是 如果铃声和食物多次同时出现But over and over again, if you put the bell and the food together, 很快 铃声便也能促使狗分泌出唾液pretty soon the bell will generate saliva. 开始时呈现无条件刺激And now the bell-When-You start off with the unconditioned stimulus, 会出现无条件反应unconditi