语言学导论课后习题答案

1、Chapter 4 Morphologyl What is morphology?n The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.n Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.n Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.l Morphemes and allo

2、morphsn The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.n A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.n “zero” form of a morpheme and suppletivesu Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to i

3、ndicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.u Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate gramma

4、tical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.l Free and bound morphemesn Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.n Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new wor

5、ds. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.n The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.n Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).l Inflexional and derivat

6、ional morphemesn Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.n Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.u English affixes are divided into prefixes and suff

7、ixes.u Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.u The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.l Conclusion: classification of morphemesn Morphemesu Free morphemesu Boun

8、d morphemesl Inflexionall Derivational: affixesn Prefixes: -s, -s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -sn Suffixesl Formation of new wordsn Derivationu Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.u Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number

9、of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.u Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.

10、 Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.u Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.u Some English suffixes also change the word stress.n Compoundingu Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morpheme

11、s.u The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes nouns, verbs and adjectives and fall into the three classes.u In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.u The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the co

12、mponents.n Conversionu Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.u Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.n Clippingu Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.u Clipped words are initially

13、 used in spoken English on informal occasions.u Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.n Blendingu

14、Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior

15、middle school students “plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).n Back-formationu Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is for

16、med by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.n Acronyms and abbreviationsu Acronyms and abbreviations

17、 are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.u Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.u This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.n Eponymsu Ep

18、onyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.n Coinageu Coinage is a process of inventing words

19、 not based on existing morphemes.u This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.n For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.转自英美者-英语专业网站：cs/8698

20、3.htmlChapter 3 Phonologyl What is phonology?n Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.n Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.n Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.u What sounds make up the li

21、st of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?u What sounds vary in what ways in what context?u What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?l Phonemes and allophonesn A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.n The vari

22、ants of a phoneme are termed allophones.n We use allophones to realize phonemes.l Discovering phonemesn Contrastive distribution phonemesu If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.u Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs

23、and minimal sets.l A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.l Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.u The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic al

24、phabet are in contrastive distribution.u Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.n Complementary distribution allophonesu Sounds that are not found in the same p

25、osition are said to be in complementary distribution.u If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.n Free variationu If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, the

26、y are said to be in free variation.l Distinctive and non-distinctive featuresn Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.n Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.l Phonological rulesn Phonemes are

27、abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.n What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.n The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and st

28、ated in phonology as rules.n There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as examples.l +voiced +consonant -voiced/-voiced +consonant_l -voiced +bilabial +stop unaspirated/-voiced +alveolar +fricative_l Syllable structuren A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed o

29、f one or more phonemes.n Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.n The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.l Sequence of phonemesn Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be

30、put together.n Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.n Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.n When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but they will never fill systematic gaps.l Supr

31、asegmental featuresn Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.n These features are distinctive features.n Stressu Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.u Stress is a relative no

32、tion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.u If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.u In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.n Intonationu When we speak

33、, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.u Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.u The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.u In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-ri

34、se.n Toneu Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.u The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.u Chinese is a typical tone language.-转自英美者-英语专业网站：ml/M/Linguistics/86123.htmlChapter 2 Phoneticsl What is phonetics?n Phonetics is termed as the stud

35、y of speech sounds.n Sub-branches of phoneticsu Articulatory phonetics the production of speech soundsu Acoustic phonetics the physical properties of speech soundsu Auditory phonetics the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsl The speech organsn Where does the air stream come from?u From the lungn W

36、hat is the function of vocal cords?u Controlling the air streamn What are the cavities?u Oral cavityu Pharyngeal cavityu Nasal cavityl Transcription of speech soundsn Units of representationu Segments (the individual sounds)n Phonetic symbolsu The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of sp

37、eech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).u The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.u In more detailed transcription (narrow tra

38、nscription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.l Description of speech soundsn Description of English consonantsu General feature: obstructionu Criteria of consonant descriptionl Places of articulationl Manners of articulation

39、l Voicing of articulationu Places of articulationl This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.n Bilabial: p b m wn Labiodental: f vn Interdental: W Tn Alveolar: t d s z l n rn Palatal: F V tF dV jn Velar: k g Nn Glottal: hu Manners of articulationl This refe

40、rs to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.n Stops: p b t d k gn Fricatives: s z F V f v W T hn Affricates: tF dVn Liquids: l rn Glides: w jn Nasals: m n Nu Voicing of articulationl This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are pr

41、oduced.n Voiced soundsn Voiceless soundsn Description of English vowelsu General feature: without obstructionu Criteria of vowel descriptionl Part of the tongue that is raisedn Frontn Centraln Backl Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palaten Highn Midn Lowl Kind of opening made

42、 at the lipsl Position of the soft palateu Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongsl Phonetic features and natural classesn Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.n Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.n Classificatio

43、n of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.第三章“词汇”问题和练习 1. 解释下列术语 语素 复合词 屈折变化 词缀 派生词 词根 语素变体 词干 粘着语素 自由语素 词位 词汇 语法词 词汇词 封闭类 开放类 混成法 借词 混合借词 转移借词 缩略语 脱落 逆构词法 同化 异化 俗词源 2. 给下列词加上适当的否定前缀 a. removable m. syllabic b. formal n. normal c. practicable o. workable d.

44、 sensible p. written e. tangible q. usual f. logical r. thinkable g. regular s. human h. proportionate t. relevant i. effective u. editable j. elastic v. mobile k. ductive w. legal l. rational x. discreet 3. 语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。那么语素是语法概念还是语义概念？它跟单位是什么关系？语素和音位能够构成一个有机整体吗？ 4. 阅读下面一段话，列出所有能找到的功能词。（包括be的

45、所有形式，都看作功能词）并给出这段话中功能词的百分比。 She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generation of peasant

46、 ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home. 5. "完全由两个或更多的较小形式构成的自由形式是词组。不是词组的自由形式是词。那么，词是最小的自由形式。"（布龙菲尔德，1935：178） 回答下面的问题： （a）"词"

47、;这个术语是有歧义的。布龙菲尔德的定义想要涵盖哪一种词？ （b）英语中有没有传统认为是词（在"词"的合适意义上）却不能满足布龙菲尔德定义的词？ （c）词的定义中还用到了哪些其他的标准？ 6.找出下列混合词的来源。假如词典中没有提供答案，请根据自己的理解来判断。 (a) bash; (b) smash; (c) glimmer; (d) flimmer; (e) clash; (f) flare; (g) brunch; (h ) motel; (i) transistor; (j) medicare; (k) workaholic; (l) spam; (m) teleth

48、on; (n) aerobicise; (o) chunnel; (p) chortle; (q) bit; (r) modem; (s) guestimate; (t) threepeat. 7. 确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中选出正确的解释。 栏 1 栏 2 栏 3 (a) hangnail aching nail hanging nail (b) female a male's companion little woman (c) crayfish crawling fish crab (d) shamefaced face reflecting shame

49、bound by shame (e) Jordan almond imported almond garden almond (f) sparrowgrass a genus of herbs bird nesting in grass (g) belfre bell tower bell (h) bridegroom a woman is just or a man is just, or about about to be married to be married (i) muskrat a large rat-like animal a large musk deer (Algonqu

50、ian: musquash) (j) woodchuck a north American goat a north American (Algonquian: otchek) marmot 8. 从下面的逆构词确定本来项目的形式。 (a) asset: _ (b) burgle: _ (c) enthuse: _ (d) greed: _ (e) hush: _ (f) automate: _ (g) donate: _ (h) escalate: _ (i) homesick: _ (j) peddle: _ (k) diagnose: _ (l) tuit: _ (m) amusing:

51、 _ (n) loaf: _ (o) self-destruct：_ (p) attrit: _ (q) hairdress: _ (r) emote: _ (s) drowse: _ (t) frivol: _ 9. 确定下列词语的直接语源。（例如，"meaning"的直接语源是法语，尽管它更远的来源是拉丁语。） (a) air: _ (b) barbecue: _ (c) bungalow: _ (d) cola: _ (e) gusto: _ (f) Babel: _ (g) buffalo: _ (h) cocoa: _ (i) costume: _ (j) ill

52、: _ (k) mule: _ (l) decreed: _ (m) revolution: _ (n) benevolent: _ (o) lie: _ (p) topic: _ (q) subject: _ (r) theme: _ (s) wind: _ (t) datum: _ 10. 把下列词语进行分类，分出借词（LW）、混合借词（LB）、转移借词（LS）、翻译借词（LT）： booby trap, coconut, loanword, monk, firewater, free verse, war paint, yankee. 11. 如果有两个词缀-ly，一个生成形容词，另一个

53、附在形容词后生成副词，我们能找到同时包含这两个词缀的词吗？ 12. 从下列词语中列出后面能加-s的名词。 epiphany, foot, hat, house, kitchen, ox, phenomenon, region, sheep, tomato 13. 有没有这样的词缀，能附加在动词后面，不会产生或没有很特殊的意义，而且不会改变动词的类别？转自英美者-英语专业网站：2. a. irremovable m. dissyllabicb. informal n. abnormalc. impracticable o. unworkabled. insensible p. unwritten

54、e. intangible q. unusualf. illogical r. unthinkableg. irregular s. inhumanh. disproportionate t. irrelevanti. ineffective u. uneditablej. inelastic v. immobilek. inductive w. illegall. irrational x. indiscreet3. 既然把语素定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位，那么它同时涉及了语言单位的语法方面和语义方面。一个语素可能就是一个音位，如I（我）；但是一个语素通常不是一个音位，如pig(猪)，整个

55、单词是一个语素，也就是说pig是具独立的自由语素，但是音位是/p/, /I/和/g/。4. 这段话中包含的功能词有：she, was, a, and, when, she, for, she, was, past, of, her, were, in, but, this, and, as, she, a, that, from, of, would, to, her, a, of, that, had, over, she, would, the, it, on, her, and, it和the。整段文章共有85个单诩词。其中功能词有40个。所以功能词在这段文章中所占的比例是40/8547%5. (a) 布龙菲尔德想把book, books, 或者do, does, did, done这样的词自主理成同一个词的不同形式，而不是看作不同的词。但另一方面，他又主张把John's hat 中的 John's当作一个词。同