unit 7 presupposition

1、Unit 7 Pragmatic Presupposition /entries/presupposition/PresuppositionOutlineIntroductionTheoryDaily use Ads AnalysisPresupposition andEntailmentTypes or TriggersPresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDaily Use Ads AnalysisPresupposition andEntailmentTypes or TriggersPresupposition:

2、What a speaker or writer assumes that the receivers already knowsWhy does presupposition exist? Because it enables us to communicate succinctly. It is much easier to say John doesnt write any more than it is to say . A person we both know and agree that his name is John, and who knows how to write,

3、and who is able to write poetry, wrote poetry in some past time, and know he does not write poetryWatch a video advertisement, do you know what it is advertising?PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDaily Use Ads AnalysisPresupposition andEntailmentTypes or TriggersDefinition A presupposition is backgrou

4、nd belief, relating to an utterance, that must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the utterance to be considered appropriate in context generally will remain a necessary assumption whether the utterance is placed in the form of an assertion, denial, or question, and can ge

5、nerally be associated with a specific lexical item or grammatical feature (presupposition trigger) in the utterance. Pragmatic presupposition is “something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance or a message precondition for the processing of any communication” (Yule, 1996:2

6、5). Pragmatic presuppositions are best described as a relation between a speaker and the appropriateness of a sentence in a context (Levinson, 1997:177). Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions (Yule, 1996:25). 何自然(1997) has summarized various kinds of pragmatic presuppositions as the followin

7、g: 1)speakers assumption of the context in which an utterance is made, 2) mutual knowledge, 3)felicity conditions to be satisfied for a speech act to be performed. The utterance John regrets that he stopped doing linguistics before he left Cambridge has the following presuppositions: There is someon

8、e uniquely identifiable to speaker and addressee as John. John stopped doing linguistics before he left Cambridge. John was doing linguistics before he left Cambridge. John left Cambridge. John had been at Cambridge. Some more on the pragmatic theory Influential exponents include Stalnaker (1974): s

9、uggested that when people communicate, they have a common ground this is a background set of assumptions that they both make, and know to be true presupposition works against this common ground felicitous use of an utterance requires that its presuppositions be commonly held by all interlocutorsDeal

10、ing with new presuppositions Its a fact about communication that not everything we presuppose is known to our interlocutor A: My dog died. B: Didnt know you had one. Ways out: we can ask for clarification sometimes, we dont because the presupposition is quite clear and obvious We just adopt it.Accom

11、modation Lewis (1979) suggested that interlocutors carry out accomodation:If at time t something is said that presupposes p, but p is not presupposed (not in common ground), then, all other things being equal, p is introduced in the common ground. Ordinary conversation does not always proceed in the

12、 ideal orderly fashion described earlier. People do make leaps and shortcuts by using sentences whose presuppositions are not satisfied in the conversational context. This is the rule rather than the exception I think we can maintain that a sentence is always taken to be an increment to a context th

13、at satisfies its presuppositions. If the current conversational context does not suffice, the listener is entitled and expected to extend it as required. (Karttunen 1974: 191) Accommodation exampleSpeaker A (to B): The guy who murdered my cat was really insane. Theyve now put him in an asylum. Suppo

14、se B didnt know my cat was murdered. The definite description the guy who murdered my cat presupposes that there is one person who was the murderer of my cat B can accommodate this, by assuming that its true and is now part of common groundPresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDaily Use Ads AnalysisPresup

15、position andEntailmentTypes or Triggers预设在日常生活对话中的应用和分析场景1：一家三口在吃火锅。背景是这家的小孩很喜欢吃炸面筋。平时学校放学后他就喜欢马上去买来吃。正好今天的餐桌上就有炸面筋。对话就这样开始了。母亲：小新啊，你看，你最喜欢吃的炸面筋好了。快趁热吃啊。儿子：马上夹起一块就放嘴里。母亲：怎样？不错吧？儿子：超好吃啊！母亲：你看，家里煮的面筋又好吃，又干净，以后尽量不要在外面吃了，知道吗？儿子：哦，知道了。 分析：这里母亲在与儿子的对话中预设了在外面吃不干净，不好吃，所以对话中橙色部分就是预设。这里，预设了在外面吃东西不卫生这个客观情况。 目的

16、：母亲与儿子的对话在这里达到了她的教育的目的：以后不要在外面乱吃东西。场景场景2 2：大学宿舍：大学宿舍 小新刚下课。当他回到自己的座位旁，小新刚下课。当他回到自己的座位旁，发现了女朋友送他的水杯掉在了地上，发现了女朋友送他的水杯掉在了地上，旁边站着的小觉是一脸无辜的表情。旁边站着的小觉是一脸无辜的表情。小新：这是怎么回事？小新：这是怎么回事？小觉：这个，这个小觉：这个，这个小新：小新： 你什么时候把他打烂的？你什么时候把他打烂的？小觉：不是我啊，我也刚进来小觉：不是我啊，我也刚进来 作用：预设除了可以用于教育小辈之外（例1），还可以使听者有被责备的感觉。但是这会使对话无法进行下去。而且很容易

17、造成误会。因为这里小新预设了杯就是小觉打烂的。但事实可能是别人打烂或是别的原因，只是小觉刚好站那里就招致误会了。 当然，预设在日常生活中的应用是举不胜举的。此处就不再细列。PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDaily Use Ads AnalysisPresupposition andEntailmentTypes or Triggers动感地带周杰伦纸条篇 Student A:老师,我没有 Student B:你看错了吧老师. 老师,我们没有作弊. The teacher:你看到他们传纸条了吗? 你看到他们作弊了吗? Student C:没有. 他们发短信. 他

18、们发短信作弊.动感地带周杰伦纸条篇 短信无处不在 我的地盘,我的短信台北市政府喝酒不开车篇 我不该爱他. 我爱他. 我不该相信他. 我相信他. 我不该在他喝酒以后,还把车钥匙给他. 他喝了酒. 我把车钥匙给了他.DrunkAlcoholKey of the CarCarAccidentWritten Advertisements 1.Youll want the Capital One No Hassle Platinum card, the different credit card with low rate. A low rate that stays low without intro

19、ductory offer, without expiry rate. Just one flat rate of 6.9% p.a for both balance transfers and purchases. Thats it. You can relax, knowing youve got the flat rate, and wont have the hassle of switching cards again. The Capital One No Hassle Platinum card. Low rates that stat low. A. “1.Youll want

20、 the Capital One No Hassle Platinum card, the different credit card with low rate” There is a different credit card, The credit card is with a low rate. B. “without introductory offer, without expiry rate” The other credit cards are with introductory offer and expiry rate. C. “knowing youve got the

21、flat rate” There is a flat rate D. “wont have the hassle of switching cards again” You had the hassle of switching cards in the past.Have your fortune told for The Year of The Rooster. Redeem an exclusive fortune Guide 2005. Career, money, romance, health-what does 2005 have in store for you? Mak Li

22、ng Ling and Yau Tin Yuen have all the answers,You can read the formers Fortune Guide To the Year of the Rooster 2005 in English at the special redemption price of $25, or the latters special Chinese edition for $8. And you will also receive a free fortunate crystal bracelet. By following their advic

23、e, you can enhance your good luck and avoid ill fortune in the year to come. Dont wait until its too late! A “what does 2005 have in store for you?” You have a fixed destiny in 2005 B “a free fortunate crystal bracelet(手镯）” There is a crystal bracelet that can bring you luck C “you can enhance your

24、good luck and avoid ill fortune in the year to come.” There is good luck and ill fortune in the year to come Good luck can be enhanced Ill fortune can be avoided D “Dont wait until its too late!” You need it some day. To summarize, presuppositions are a crucial part of advertising as they can cause

25、the reader to consider the existence of objects, propositions, and culturally defined behavioral properties: for example, Have you had your daily vitamins? presupposes that you take or need daily vitamins, thereby creating and perpetuating the idea that the behavior of taking vitamins daily is part

26、of our culture. Similarly, Whats great about Chuck Wagon dog food? (Geis 1982, 45) presupposes that there is something great about the dog food. PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDaily Use Ads AnalysisPresupposition andEntailmentTypes or Triggers Presupposition: The information that a speaker assumes

27、to be already known. (The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language, 1987) Implicit meanings conveyed by the speaker through the use of particular words. Ex: The Cold War has ended presupposes that the existence of the entities it refers to, in this case the Cold War. Speakers, not sentences, have presupp

28、ositions Entailment is not a pragmatic concept. It is defined as what logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.Example: Susans sister bought two houses. This sentence presupposes that Susan exists and that she has a sister. This sentence has

29、 the entailments that Susans sister bought something; now she has 2 houses, a house, and other similar logical consequences. The entailments are communicated without being said and are not dependent on the speakers intention. Presupposition: The relationship between two propositions. Marys cat is cu

30、te. (p) Mary has a cat. (q) p q = p presupposes q If the speaker denies the proposition p (NOT p), the presupposition q doesnt change. Marys cat isnt cute. (NOT p) Mary has a cat. (q) Not p q = Not p presupposes q Presupposition: Constancy under negation: The presupposition of a statement will remai

31、n true even when that statement is negated. Presupposition: Other examples of constancy under negation: p: Dave is angry because Jim crashed the car. q: Jim crashed the car p q NOT p: Dave isnt angry because Jim crashed the car q: Jim crashed the car NOT p q Presupposition: p: Mr. Singleton has resu

32、med his habit of drinking stout q: Mr. Singleton had a habit of drinking stout. p q NOT p: Mr. Singleton hasnt resumed his habit of drinking stout q: Mr. Singleton had a habit of drinking stout. NOT p qEntailment sentences that stand in an implicational relation, where the truth of the first guarant

33、ees the truth of the second. The anarchist assassinated the emperor. The emperor died. So, the first sentence entails the second. A: Everyone passed the examination.B : No-one failed the examination.A entails B whenever A is true, B is true the information that B contains is contained in the informa

34、tion that A conveys a situation describable by A must also be a situation describable by B A and NOT B are contradictory.We take entailment relations to be those that specifically arise from linguistic structure Generally speaking, entailment is not a pragmatic concept (i.e. having to do with the sp

35、eaker meaning), but it is considered a purely logical concept.Presuppositions vs. entailmentsUtterances and their presuppositions.1) She has stopped smoking.presupposesShe used to smoke.2) My dog ate my bag.presupposesI have a dog, and I have (had) a bag.Utterances and their entailments.The emperor

36、was assassinated entails1) Someone was assassinated.2) The emperor died. Presuppositions are different from entailments. 1) She hasnt stopped smoking.Still presupposesShe used to smoke.2) My dog didnt eat my bag.Still presupposesI have a dog, and I (still, it seems) have a bag.whileThe emperor wasnt

37、 assassinated.Does not entail any more1)Someone was assassinated.2)The emperor died.PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDaily Use Ads AnalysisPresupposition andEntailmentTypes or Triggers Types of Presupposition Presuppositions are associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases and structur

38、es. These linguistic forms are considered as indicators of potential presupposition, which can only become actual presupposition in contexts with speakers. 1- Existential presupposition: Entities named by the speaker and assumed to be present - noun phrase. - possessive constructions “Davids car is

39、new” we can presuppose that David exists and that he has a car. Some lexical triggers: Definite noun phrases: The student fell asleep. The student didnt fall asleep David is a bachelor (David is an unmarried male person) 2- Factive presupposition: identified by the presence of some verbs such as kno

40、w“, realize“, “be glad”, “be sorry”, etc. Some lexical triggers: Factive verbs: Tracy realized Pat ate a sandwich. Pat regretted eating a sandwich. Pat liked eating a sandwich. I was aware of the class cancellation on Monday They announced the winner of the contest. Im glad its over. She didnt reali

41、ze that she was ill.3- Lexical presupposition: In using one word, the speaker can act as if another meaning will be understood. For instance: Mary stopped running. (He used to run.) You are late again. ( You were late before.) Are you still such a bad driver? ( You were a bad driver)stop“, again“ “s

42、till” are taken to presuppose another (unstated) concept. Some lexical triggers: Change of state verbs: Pat stopped eating a sandwich (at 2pm). Pat started eating a sandwich (at 2pm). Verbs of judgment: Tracy blamed Pat for eating the sandwich. Tracy faults Pat for eating the sandwich. Susan is accu

43、sed of X (X is bad) Susan was criticized for X (X is bad and Susan did X) 4- Structural presupposition: it is the assumption associated with the use of certain structures. - wh-question constructions. When did she travel to the USA? ( she travelled) Where did you buy the book? ( you bought the book)

44、 The listener perceives that the information presented is necessarily true, or intended as true by the speaker. 5- Non- factive presupposition: it is an assumption referred to something that is not true. For example, verbs like dream, imagine and pretend are used with the presupposition that what fo

45、llows is not true. I dreamed that I was rich. ( I was not rich) We imagined that we were in London. ( We were not in London) 6- Counterfactual presupposition: it is the assumption that what is presupposed is not only untrue, but is the opposite of what is true, or contrary to facts. conditional stru

46、ctures, If you were my daughter, I would not allow you to do this. ( you are not my daughter) If I were rich I would buy a Ferrari ( Im not rich) It-cleft construction/cleft sentences: a) It was TOM that did the work. b) It wasnt ME who took your jacket. Cleft sentences are used to help us focus on

47、a particular part of the sentence and to emphasise what we want to say Because there are two parts they are called cleft (from the verb cleave) which means divided into two. Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where we cannot use intonation for purposes of focus or emphasis, but they

48、are also frequently used in speech. Cleft structures include the reason why, the thing that, the person/people who, the place where, the day when and what-clauses which are usually linked to the clause that we want to focus on with is or was. From: BBC World serviceFrom Barclays Worldwide“, a four-m

49、onthly newsletter for clients of Barclays bank who live outside the UK.1998 summer-issue, a passage about the introduction of the Euro, titled Euro Update - Your questions answered. Britain may join in the lifetime of a future parliament the UK has not joined so far a carefully-expressed appreciatio

50、n of the value of sterling The Characteristics of Pragmatic Presupposition one-sidedness, subjectiveness and sneakiness(陈新仁,1998). All these properties make presupposition subjective, sneaky, deceptive and misleading.Felicity In this condition, felicity can also be refereed as appropriateness. Pragm

51、atic presupposition is often regarded as conditions for the felicitous use of sentences to perform a speech act. “An utterance A pragmatically presupposes a proposition B if A is appropriate only B is mutually known by participants” (Levinson: 1983). That person is not a bachelor- 何自然(2003:113-4) (1

52、)He is married.(2)Hes only six years old.(3)The person is a woman.(4)The person is a woman, who is married.(5)The person is a spinster. The above example shows that presupposition must be appropriate to the context so as to guarantee the meaningfulness of the utterance.Mutual knowledge “An utterance

53、 A pragmatically presupposes a proposition B if A is appropriate only if B is mutually known by participants”. Can you close the window? Presupposition should be commonly known or accepted information for the participants of communication, otherwise the hearer will misunderstand the speakers utteran

54、ce. One-sidedness This refers to the fact that the presupposition is made only by the addresser himself and that it exists only in the mind of the addresser himself before the presupposition is interpreted or inferred by the addressee. Mutual knowledge relates to utterance understanding while one-si

55、dedness relates to pragmatic presupposition itself. Subjectiveness Pragmatic presupposition is subjective. It is a kind of context assumption with an assertive feature. It is not necessary true or correct. Pragmatic presupposition is defined as the belief or attitude of the speaker or hearer concern

56、ing the truth of a proposition. It is not an inevitable truth but an assumption about the context. Sneakiness Pragmatic presupposition is closely connected with the speakers belief, attitude and intention. In addition, it comes from peoples knowledge about the way, in which language users convention

57、ally interpret the words and structures that trigger it, so presupposition is concealed in a conversation and can be quite “sneaky”. Do you still beat your wife?Analysis of advertisement We cant keep something this juicy a secret (Juicy, from http:/www. Stanford. edu. htm). This advertisement can le

58、ave a very deep impression on the readers. The existential presupposition is triggered by the demonstrative pronoun “this”, which presupposes that there is something “this juicy”, and then makes an assertion about it. One important function of the presupposition here is to promote a kind of ideology within advertising; in this case