元话语的分类

1、2 元话语的分类由于对元话语的性质和功能的认识差异,对元话语的分类也存在不同。迄今为止,元话语已有几种不同的分类体系(参Williams ,1981 ;Lautamatti ,1978 ;Vande ,1985 ;Crismore ,1989 ;Crismore et al ,1993 ;Hyland ,1998 ,2005) 。本研究将会主要讨论三种分法:Kopple（1985）、Crismore et al （1993）以及Hyland（2004）。Vande Kopple(1985)基于Lautamatti和Williams对元话语的研究, 概括了7种元话语并将其分为语篇元话语和人际元话

2、语两大类型。其中, 语篇元话语指的是在语篇中连接语篇各层次的主要成分, 组词成篇的词和短语。人际元话语主要是体现作者和读者关系的词和短语, 见表1。表1Vande Kopple的元话语分类Category Function Examples Textual metadiscourse Text connectivesShow how parts of a text are connected to one another sequencers (first, next), reminders (as I mentioned in Chapter 2), topicalizers(with re

3、gard to) Code glosses Help readers grasp the writers intended meaning mean, such as Validity markers Express the writers commitment to a statement hedges (perhaps, might), emphatics (undoubtedly)，attributors (according to) Narrators Inform readers of the source of information according to Smith,Inte

4、rpersonal metadiscourse Illocution markers Make the discourse act explicit at certain point to conclude, I hypothesize, to sum up, we predict Attitude markers Express the writers attitudes unfortunately, interestingly, I wish that Commentaries address readers directly, drawing them into an implicit

5、dialogue you will certainly agree that, you might want to read the third chapter first 不难看出, VandeKopple的分类存在问题, 如, 同样是“ according to ”, 既属于归属语又属于叙说词。One problem in identifying metadiscourse is its multifunctionality, that is, the functions are not performed in isolation and one metadiscourse may ac

6、hieve several purposes simultaneously. Therefore, in order to solve this problem, Crismore, Markkanen, and Steffensen (1993) in their classification try to use a functional analysis: metadiscourse is defined according to its primary function in the context. Crismoreetal(1993）在VandeKopple(1985)的分类基础上

7、, 也将元话语分为两大类:语篇元话语和人际元话语。Crismoreetal的分类中去掉了叙说词一项, 将逻辑连接词、序列词、提醒词和主题词概括为语篇标记语, 同时将语码注释词和施事标记词纳入解释标记语。语篇标记语和解释标记语这一全新分法说明了元话语的语篇功能:语篇标记语帮助组织语篇, 解释标记语帮助读者解释和更好地理解作者的意图及写作策略。For interpersonal metadiscourse, validity markers, which is a subcategory of textual metadiscourse, is now under the classificati

8、on of interpersonal metadiscourse and three separate subcategories - hedges, certainty markers，and attributors are included. Attributors are combined with narrators because both are used to inform the readers of the source of ideas. 见表2不过, Crismore etal的这一分法也存在一些问题, 如, 将语篇元话语分为语篇标记语和解释标记语的依据不明确, 另外,

9、 用来指称语篇前部分所提内容的提醒词属于语篇标记语, 而用于指称语篇后部分所提内容的宣告词却又属于解释标记语, 这似乎有点牵强附会。Category Function Examples Textual metadiscourseTextual Markers Logical Connectives we noted earlier Help show connections between ideas and, but, therefore Sequencers Help show sequence of material first, second Reminders Refer to ea

10、rlier text material As we saw in Chapter1Topicalizers Indicate topic shift or a new topic Well; now I will discuss,in regard to Interpretive Markers Code Glosses Explain text materialWhat I mean is , that is, for example Illocution Markers Name the act performed To conclude;in sum;I predictAnnouncem

11、ents Announcing upcoming material In the next sectionInterpersonal metadiscourse Hedges Show lack of commitment to the truth-value of proposition may, might Certainty Markers Show full commitment to the truth-value of proposition I absolutely sure I know Attributors Refer to authorities used for per

12、suasive forceEinstein claimed that Attitude Markers Express writers affective values I agree, unfortunately Commentary Build writer-reader relationships My friend, you may not agree that Hyland(2004)认为, 将元话语分为语篇元话语和人际元话语不太确切, 应将元话语分为指引读者读完整个语篇的交互式元话语和帮助读者掌握论点的互动式元话。其中, 交互式元话语涉及作者对读者的意识, 以及作者对读者的知识、兴

13、趣、修辞期望和语篇处理能力的调解, 它反映了作者组织语篇的方法, 在一定程度上体现出作者在创作语篇的过程中考虑到了读者的需求。而互动式元话语是作者通过入侵语篇和对语篇信息加以评论来引领互动展开交际的方法, 它在一定程度上体现了语篇是由作者和读者一起构建的。关于Hyland的分类模式，本文将会在theoretical basis 里详细解释。Category Function ExamplesInteractive metadiscourse Help to guide the reader through the text Transitions express relations betwe

14、en main clause in addition; but; thus; and Frame markers refer to discourse acts, sequences or stages finally; to conclude; my purpose is Endophoric markers refer to information in other parts of the textnoted above; see Fig; in section2 Evidentials refer to information in other parts of the text ac

15、cording to X; Z states Code glosses elaborate propositional meanings namely; e.g.; such as; in other words Interactional metadiscourse Involve the reader in the text Hedges withhold commitment and open dialogue might; perhaps; possible; about Boosters emphasize certainty or close dialogue in fact; d

16、efinitely; it is clear thatAttitude markers express writers attitude to propositionunfortunately; I agree; surprisingly Self mentions explicit reference to author(s) I; we; my; me; our Engagement markers explicitly build relationship with reader consider; note; you can see that Class 2 metadiscourse

17、Recognizing the differences in the nature and function of meta discourse, the discourse of the dollar classification are also different. To date, there are several different metadiscourse classification system (see Williams, 1981; Lautamatti, 1978; Vande, 1985; Crismore, 1989; Crismore et al, 1993;

18、Hyland, 1998, 2005). Xu Jiujiu (2006) summarize findings and discuss the classification of metadiscourse mainly in vocabulary classes. From the current research point of view, there are three main points of law: chapter Kopple (1988) proposed and interpersonal metadiscourse, Hyland and Tse (2004) pr

19、oposed a guided and interactive metadiscourse, and Ifantidou (2005) proposed internal discourse and External chapter metadiscourse.The first classification is made Vande (1985) made, he put metadiscourse divided into two categories: Text metadiscourse means connecting the main component of all level

20、s of discourse in chapters, a chapter of the word of words and phrases, including Text Connective (text connectives), language code annotation words (code glosses), validity Signs (validity markers), the narrator (narrator). Interpersonal metadiscourse mainly reflected words and phrases relationship

21、 authors and readers, including illocutionary force marked words (illocution markers), attitude identifies words (attitude markers) and author - reader communication identifies words (commentaries).Hyland(2005) 认为元话语是用来协商语篇互动意义的自我反省(reflexive) 表达形式,有助于表现作者对读者的意识,强调社交成员的交际。因此,不管是篇章元话语还是人际元话语都具有评价、态度和

22、参与等人际意义。在此基础上,他把元话语分为交际和互动两大类。交际类元话语有助于引导读者,注重组织话语的方式,包括过渡标记(transition markers) 、框架标记(frame markers) 、回指标记(endophoric markers) 、言据标记( evidentials) 、语码注释语( code glosses) 。互动类元话语包括模糊语( hedges) 、增强语(boosters) 、态度标记(attitude markers) 、自称语(self mention) 和介入标记(engagement markers) 。内部外部篇章元话语的分类是由Ifantidou

23、(2005) 提出的。内部篇章元话语是指同一个篇章中的内部不同部分之间的一种关系;外部篇章元话语指的是不同的篇章、不同的作者, 或同一作者不同时期的篇章的所指关系。他对每一类都列举了一些具体的语言表达手段,但同时指出,所列语言表达式并不是穷尽的。此外，以上关于元话语的研究中，研究者大多依照Halliday 语言功能理论，把元话语划分为“篇章元话语”和“人际元话语”两大范畴( Vande Kopple 1985; Crismore，et al 1993) 。Adel( 2006: 18) 突破了以Halliday 功能理论为基础的元话语研究范式，以Jakobson( 1998) 的语言功能理论为

24、依据，提出了“反身元话语”的概念。她从Jakobson 提出的六种语言功能中提取了元语言、表达和指示这三种功能来论述元话语现象。这三个功能的焦点分别是篇章/语码、作者和读者。Hyland (2005) considered metadiscourse interactive discourse is used to negotiate the meaning of self-reflection (reflexive) forms of expression, the author of consciousness contribute to the performance of the re

25、aders, emphasizing the communicative social members. Therefore, whether or interpersonal discourse metadiscourse metadiscourse have evaluated attitudes and participation interpersonal significance. On this basis, he metadiscourse divided into two major categories of communication and interaction. Co

26、mmunication class metadiscourse help guide readers to pay attention to the organization of discourse, including the transition tag (transition markers), the frame marker (frame markers), back to the index record (endophoric markers), Evidentiality mark (evidentials), code-language comments (code glo

27、sses). Interactive class metadiscourse include blurred language (hedges), enhances the language (boosters), attitudes mark (attitude markers), claiming language (self mention) and interventional mark (engagement markers).Internal external chapter metadiscourse classification by Ifantidou (2005) rais

28、ed. Internal chapter metadiscourse refers to a relationship between the different parts of the same chapter between internal; external chapter metadiscourse refer to different chapters, relations within the meaning of different authors, or at different times in the same chapter author. For each clas

29、s, he listed some specific language means of expression, but also pointed out that linguistic expression is not exhaustive list.In addition, Adel (2006) from the perspective of "Discourse world" to Metadiscourse divided into two main forms: Metadiscourse and author - reader interaction. Yu

30、an discourse role is to guide the reader and the text in the language of the evaluation; author - reader interaction is to establish and maintain relationships with readers.In addition to metadiscourse classification, some researchers focus on metadiscourse a specific expression, such as hedges and

31、modality markers and the like. As Vande (1985, 2002) from a functional perspective meta discourse research, analysis metadiscourse chapter function and interpersonal function; Hyand (1998, 1999, 2000, 2005) many times in recent years to explore, such as fuzzy language, enhances the language, etc. me

32、tadiscourse function in science and technology discourse and academic discourse; Hyland & Tse (2004) also devoted to punctuation, etc. play metadiscourse function; Kumpf (2000) from a visual point of view, such as the layout of typography, colors, etc. to discuss yuan discourse; Thompson (2003)

33、investigated the tone of academic lectures as metadiscourse group chapter function.3 元话语研究综述国内外不少学者从各个角度对元话语进行了研究， 并取得了令人瞩目的成果。国外研究方面，大致围绕以下两方面进行：（1）研究文化差异对元话语使用的影响；（2）研究元话语的使用对写作质量的影响。就第一个方面开展的实证研究如Crismore, Markkanen 和Steffensen （1993）、Bloch 和Chi （1995）、Valero -Garcés （1996）、Moreno（1997，2004）

34、、Dahl（2004）等。其中，Crismore，Markkanen 和Steffensen（1993）比较了美国大学生和芬兰大学生在使用元话语手段方面的文化和性别的差异。他们发现芬兰学生比美国学生使用的元话语要多，男学生比女学生使用的元话语要多，两国学生使用的人际元话语都比篇章元话语多；其中，芬兰男生用的最多, 美国男生用的最少。这说明在使用元话语手段的过程中确实存在着文化和性别差异。就第二个方面开展的实证研究如Intaraprawat（1988）、Barton（1993）、Longo（1994）、Intaraprawat 和Steffensen （1995）、Cheng 和Steffens

35、en（1997）、Shaw 和Liu（1998）、Hewings 和Hewings（2002）等。其中， Intaraprawat 和Steffensen（1995）分析了12 名把英语作为二语的美国留学生的议论文发现， 质量好的作文比质量差的作文使用更多类型的互动型元话语手段。他们认为，写作技能高的学生意识到了读者的需要， 因此使用了一些元话语特征使文章更为读者接受。Cheng 和Steffensen（1997）在美国一所大学选择了两个班的学生为研究对象，来考察能否通过给学生传授元话语知识，使其在写作中学会使用元话语。研究发现，实验班学生作文的得分更高， 因此他们认为， 元话语的使用对提高作

36、文质量起着很大的作用。国内元话语相关的实证研究主要由徐海铭（2001）、成晓光和姜晖（2004）、徐海铭和龚世莲（2006）、于建平（2007）李书仓和孙一凤等人开展。这类实证研究把中国学生作为研究对象。中国学生是在非自然环境下学习英语,并把英语作为一门外语来学习的。这就区别于母语为英语的本族学生。其中，成晓光和姜晖（2004）通过对一所师范大学英语专业三年级学生进行实验，研究元话语在英语写作中的作用。研究结果证明，讲授元话语是提高学生写作水平的一个有效方法。于建平（2007）统计了元话语在科技论文语料库中的分布情况，通过分析元话语在实现科技论文的语体特征，实现论文与作者、读者之间的互动中所发

37、挥的作用， 揭示了元话语在科技论文中的功能和应用规律，用以提高科技论文作者在英语论文写作时正确使用元话语的意识和能力，提高英语科技论文的写作和翻译质量。曹凤龙、王晓红通过对比研究中美两国大学生三十篇议论文，揭示中美两国学生写作中元话语实用的异同。中美两国学生的议论文中频繁使用元话语，以篇章标记词最多，但是中国学生由于语言水平有限，目标语输入质量不高，作文评价标准不完善等问题，在英语写作中存在过度使用“语篇连接词”的现象，而委婉语和态度标记词的使用量却少于美国学生。这在很大程度上反映了中国英语写作教学缺乏对学生建立“作者 读者”关系意识的培养，没有将读者的需求纳入到写作过程中。此外李书仓和孙一凤

38、也指出掌握元话语和使用元话语在口语教学中应同时进行。Review of Empirical Study metadiscourseMany scholars at home and abroad from all angles metadiscourse were studied, and achieved remarkable results. Foreign research, roughly around the following two aspects: Impact (1) study of cultural differences on metadiscourse use; af

39、fect (2) study metadiscourse quality of writing. On empirical research carried out in the first aspect as Crismore, Markkanen and Steffensen (1993), Bloch and Chi (1995), Valero -Garcés (1996), Moreno (1997,2004), Dahl (2004) and so on. Wherein, Crismore, Markkanen and Steffensen (1993) compare

40、d the differences between American culture and gender of students and university students in Finland means use of meta discourse aspects. They found that Finnish students than metadiscourse American students to be more male students than to female students metadiscourse, interpersonal metadiscourse

41、two students more than the chapters Metadiscourse; wherein Finnish boys with the most, the United States Boys with the least. This shows that the use of meta discourse process means the existence of cultural and gender differences.The second aspect on empirical research conducted as Intaraprawat (19

42、88), Barton (1993), Longo (1994), Intaraprawat and Steffensen (1995), Cheng and Steffensen (1997), Shaw and Liu (1998), Hewings and Hewings ( 2002). Wherein, Intaraprawat and Steffensen (1995) analyzed 12 English as a Second Language students argumentative American discovery, poor quality of good qu

43、ality essay writing than to use more types of interactive elements means words. They believe that writing skills of students to realize the need for high-readers, so use a number of features to make the article more metadiscourse reader to accept. Cheng and Steffensen (1997) at a university in the U

44、nited States selected two classes of students for the study, to examine whether by metadiscourse knowledge to teach students to learn to use in writing Metadiscourse. The study found that higher test score student writing class, so they think, using meta discourse to improve the quality of writing p

45、lays a big role.Empirical research relevant domestic Metadiscourse mainly by 徐海铭 (2001), as Jiang Xiaoguang and Hui (2004), 徐海铭 and 龚世莲 (2006), in Jianping (2007) Shu warehouse and 孙一凤, who carried out. Such empirical study of the Chinese students study. Chinese students are learning English in a no

46、n-natural environment, and English as a foreign language to learn. This is different from native English speaking students the family. Among them, a Xiaoguang and Kang Hui (2004) through a third-year English major student Normal experiment to study the role metadiscourse in English Writing. Research

47、 results show that teaching is to improve students' writing metadiscourse level of an effective way. In Jianping (2007) statistics metadiscourse corpus of scientific papers in the distribution, by analyzing metadiscourse achieving stylistic characteristics of scientific papers, papers realize th

48、e role interaction with the author, the reader played in between, reveals metadiscourse functions and applications in scientific papers in the law to improve the technology used correctly metadiscourse authors at the time of writing English papers awareness and ability to improve the quality of Engl

49、ish writing and translation of scientific papers. Caofeng Long, Wang Xiaohong comparative study by Chinese and American College Students thirty arguments, the two countries reveal students' writing metadiscourse practical similarities and differences. Chinese and American students argumentative

50、frequently used metadiscourse to chapter Marker most, but Chinese students due to limited language skills, the target language input quality, and composition evaluation criteria imperfect, exists in English writing overuse " languageArticles conjunctions "phenomenon, and the amount of use

51、euphemisms and word mark attitude but less than American students in large part reflects the lack of Chinese English Teaching students to build." Author - Training reader "relationship of consciousness, no will incorporate the needs of readers to the writing process. Further Shu-bin and 孙一

52、凤 also pointed to grasp and use metadiscourse metadiscourse should be carried out simultaneously in the spoken language teaching.Previous Studies on Metadiscourse Metadiscourse is a hot topic in discourse analysis and great achievements have been made both at home and abroad.元话语在学术语篇中尤其重要,它是劝说性、报道性语

53、篇的重要构篇机制。因为元话语手段“反映了作者对读者的理解能力、语境资源和语篇经历的认识”。(杨信彰,2008 :xi)Besides, metadiscourse is a vital component in academic discourses and persuasive reports because it reflects the author's understanding of the readers comprehensive capability, the context and experience of discourse. " (Yangxin Zh

54、ang, 2008: xi)Significance of the study1959 年 Harris 提出“元话语”这个术语，指理解语言使用、表示作者或说话人引导受众理解语篇的一种方法。此后，Williams、Vande Kopple、Crismore、Hyland等多名学者对元话语做出研究并对元话语的定义和分类提出不同的观点。同时在此基础上，还有许多学者对元话语进行实证研究。但这些研究大多数只关注元话语与写作的关系，很少关注元话语的修辞功能。 1989 年 Crismore 提出话语包括两个层面，基本话语和元话语。基本话语表达关于话题的命题信息, 元话语告诉读者如何理解、评述关于话题的命

55、题信息。基本话语实现了语言的概念功能, 元话语实现了语言的人际及语篇功能。元话语是说话人作者用于构建连贯语篇、投射自己对命题内容或受众的态度、协调与受众之间关系的一种重要手段。同时也是连接语篇与语境的重要纽带。在交际中，说话人作者除了传递信息、表达思想外，往往还会嵌入自己的观点.元话语同样也有修辞功能。本质上，修辞就是说服的艺术，是一种对没有正式、绝对证据的问题进行说理的活动。Aristotle 在修辞一书中提出三种说服手段,即气质、动情、说理。气质关注的是说话人作者的品质与可信度；动情关注的是情感方面，聚焦在受众而不是说话人作者的特点；而说理则与文章本身相关，如文章结构安排、长度、复杂度、论

56、点及论据等。 In 1959, Harris proposed the term metadiscourse to refer to the way of understanding language in use, representing that authors or speakers guide receivers to perceive a text. Since then, Williams, Vande Kopple, Crismore, Hyland and many other scholars have made plenty of researches on metadi

57、scourse and put forward different views on definitions and classifications of metadiscourse. At the same time, there are many scholars who made many empirical researches on it. But most of these studies focus on relationship between metadiscourse and writing, with little attention to the rhetorical

58、function of metadiscourse.In 1989, Crismore proposed discourse consists of two levels, primary discourse and metadiscourse. Primary discourse expresses the proposition information of the topic of a text, and metadiscourse tells the readers how to understand, review the proposition information on a topic. In the other words, the former implements the conceptual function of language, and metadiscou