西方文化第二个问题

1、Question 2:Choose one representative character from German classical philosophers and make a brief remark on his contribution to the later social or cultural development.Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant (22 April 1724 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figu

2、re of modern philosophy. He argued that fundamental concepts structure human experience, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to have a major influence in contemporary thought, especially the fields of metaphysics（形而上学）（形而上学）, epistemology（认识论）（认识论）, ethics, political phi

3、losophy, and aesthetics（美学）（美学）. Critique of Pure Reason纯粹理性批判纯粹理性批判 Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment? Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals Critique of Practical Reason实践理性批判实践理性批判 Critique of Judgment判断力批判判断力批判 Religion within the Bounds of Bare

4、Reason The Metaphysics of Morals Major worksThe Critique of Pure ReasonKant defines his theory of perception（知觉）（知觉） in his influential 1781 work The Critique of Pure Reason, which has often been cited as the most significant volume of metaphysics and epistemology in modern philosophy. Kant maintain

5、s that ourunderstanding of the external world had its foundations not merely in experience, but in both experience and a priori concepts, thus offering a non-empiricist（非经验主义者）（非经验主义者） critique of rationalist（理性主义者）（理性主义者） philosophy, which is what he and others referred to as his Copernican revolut

6、ion.纯粹理性批判纯粹理性批判的哲学要义的哲学要义首先，康德在首先，康德在纯粹理性批判纯粹理性批判的第一版序之的第一版序之中，阐明了对理性进行批判的必要性首先在于中，阐明了对理性进行批判的必要性首先在于确定一般形而上学是可能还是不可能，以及规确定一般形而上学是可能还是不可能，以及规定源流、范围和界限。但是康德于第二版序之定源流、范围和界限。但是康德于第二版序之中，反而不是着重于进行理性批判的条件，而中，反而不是着重于进行理性批判的条件，而是改变了知识与对象的关系：是改变了知识与对象的关系：“不是知识依照不是知识依照对象，而是对象依照知识对象，而是对象依照知识”，这一新概念，导，这一新概念，导

7、致康德发动了哲学界中的致康德发动了哲学界中的“哥白尼式革命哥白尼式革命”。The Critique of Practical Reason is the second of Immanuel Kants three critiques, first published in 1788. It follows on from Kants Critique of Pure Reason and deals with his moral philosophy.The second Critique exercised a decisive influence over the subsequent（

8、先前的）（先前的） development of the field of ethics and moral philosophy, beginning with Johann Gottlieb Fichtes Doctrine of Science and becoming, during the 20th century, the principal reference point for deontological（道义论的（道义论的） moral philosophy.实践理性批判的哲学要义实践理性批判的哲学要义伦理学方面，康德否定意志受外因支配的说法伦理学方面，康德否定意志受外因支配

9、的说法，而是认为意志为自己立法，人类辨别是非的，而是认为意志为自己立法，人类辨别是非的能力是与生俱来的，而不是从后天获得能力是与生俱来的，而不是从后天获得,他他认为认为真正的道德行为是纯粹基于义务而做的行为，真正的道德行为是纯粹基于义务而做的行为，而为实现某一个个人功利目的而做事情就不能而为实现某一个个人功利目的而做事情就不能被认为是道德的行为。因此，一个行为是否符被认为是道德的行为。因此，一个行为是否符合道德规范并不取决于行为的后果，而是采取合道德规范并不取决于行为的后果，而是采取该行为的动机。该行为的动机。康德还认为，只有当我们康德还认为，只有当我们遵守道德法则时，我们才遵守道德法则时，我

10、们才是自由的，因为我们遵守是自由的，因为我们遵守的是我们自己制定的道德的是我们自己制定的道德准则，而如果只是因为自准则，而如果只是因为自己想做而做，则没有自由己想做而做，则没有自由可言，因为你就成为各种可言，因为你就成为各种事物的奴隶。事物的奴隶。The Critique of Judgment , or in the new Cambridge translation Critique of the Power of Judgment, also known as the third critique, is a 1790 philosophical work by Immanuel Kan

11、t. In it, Kant lays the foundations for modern aesthetics.Kants influence on Western thought has been profound. He accomplished a paradigm（范例）（范例） shift: very little philosophy is now carried out in the style of pre-Kantian philosophy. This shift consists in several closely related innovations that

12、have become axiomatic（公理的）（公理的）, in philosophy itself and in the social sciences and humanities generally: Kants Copernican revolutionthat placed the role of the human subject or knower at the center of inquiry into our knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they are i

13、ndependently of us or of how they are for us; His invention of critical philosophy, that is of the notion of being able to discover and systematically explore possible inherent limits to our ability to know through philosophical reasoning; His creation of the concept of conditions of possibility, as

14、 in his notion of the conditions of possible experience that is that things, knowledge, and forms of consciousness rest on prior conditions that make them possible, so that, to understand or to know them, we must first understand these conditions; His theory that objective experience is actively con

15、stituted or constructed by the functioning of the human mind; His notion（概念）（概念） of moral autonomy as central to humanity His assertion（主张）（主张） of the principle that human beings should be treated as ends rather than as meansKants influence has extended to the social, behavioral, and physical sciences, as in the sociology of Max Weber, the psychology of Jean Piaget, and the linguistics of Noam Chomsky. Kants work on mathematics and synthetic（综合的）（综合的） a priori（先前的）（先前的） knowledge is also cited by theoretical physicist Albert Einstein as a