G2 introduction 2 word-formation 1

1、* Disjuncts : an adverb or adverbial (as luckily in “Luckily we had an extra set” or in short in “In short, there is nothing we can do”) that is loosely connected to a sentence and conveys the speakers or writers comment on its content, truth, or manner compare adjunct (Li Ji-an: 337-339)* Conjuncts

2、: an adverb or adverbial (as so, in addition, however, secondly) that indicates the speakers or writers assessment of the connection between linguistic units (as clauses) (Li Ji-an: 339-344) a. Enumeration-conjuncts: also termed listing conjuncts, indicate the order of consecutive statements (such a

3、s: first, second, for a start, then, finally, etc) b. Addition-conjuncts: introduce a sentence or sentences which add to the information content of the previous statement( e.g., equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way, etc.) or reinforce the previous statement (e.g., again, also, besides, furt

4、her, furthermore, moreover, what is more, in addition, above all, in particular, etc.)c. Transition-conjuncts: to bridge the gap between two statements which could be semantically unrelated. Such as: by the way, incidentally, now, meanwhile, in the meantime, etc. d. Summation-conjuncts: also called

5、summary-conjuncts, introduce a conclusion or a summary of what has been said before. Such as; altogether, overall, then, therefore, thus, all in all, in conclusion, in a word, to sum up, etc. e. Explanation-conjuncts: indicate an explanation of what has been said before. Such as; namely, specificall

6、y, for example, for instance, in other words, that is, that is to say, etc. f. Contrast-conjuncts: to indicate a contrast to what has been said before. Such as: actually, rather, alternatively, conversely, more precisely, on the other hand ,in contrast, on the contrary , etc. g. Result-conjuncts; to

7、 introduce a consequence or result of what has been said before. Such as: Accordingly, consequently, hence, so, thus, therefore, as a result, as a consequence, in consequence, etc h. Inference-conjuncts: to help indicate a kind of logical inference on the basis of what has been said before. Such as:

8、 else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that case, etc. i. Concession-conjuncts; to indicate a concessive relation between two statements. Such as: anyhow, anyway, besides, else, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, only, still, though, yet, etc. * In short, adjuncts are to modify

9、, disjuncts to comment, conjuncts just to connect* Adverbial Clauses . Adverbial Clauses of Time . Adverbial Clauses of Condition . Adverbial Clauses of Purpose . Adverbial Clauses of Reason . Adverbial Clauses of Concession . Adverbial Clauses of Manner . Adverbial Clauses of Place . Adverbial Clau

10、ses of Comparison18. Word-order . Natural Word-order . Inverted Word-order a. Full Inversion b. Partial Inversion19. Ellipsis : the omission of one or more words that are obviously understood but that must be supplied to make a construction grammatically complete . Nominal Ellipsis . Verbal Ellipsis

11、 . Clausal Ellipsis 20. Transformation of Sentences21. Punctuation . Punctuation marks: (.) . Full Stop/ Period (,) .Comma (?).Interrogation Mark/Question Mark (!)Exclamation mark (;).Semicolon (:)Colon (-).Dash (-)Hyphen (/”)Quotation Marks ().Apostrophe ().Brackets/ Marks of Parentheses ().Ellipsi

12、sWord-formation A word consists of one or more morphemes. A one-morpheme word is called a “simple word”; a word that is made up of two or more morphemes is called either a “derivative”(派生词) (also referred as a “complex”, i.e. a combination of a root and one or more affixes) or a “compound” (i.e. a c

13、ombination of two or more free morphemes)Some common approaches to the English word-formation:*. Derivation /Affixation: the formation of a word from another word or base (as by the addition of a usually noninflectional affix) i.e. a lesser morpheme is attached to a major elementa base, usually a wo

14、rd, which may already have one or more affixes incorporated in it. (un-mention-able-s) Affix is the general term that includes prefixes (an affix attached to the beginning of a word, base, or phrase and serving to produce a derivative word or an inflectional form) and suffixes (an affix occurring at

15、 the end of a word, base, or phrase)The function of a prefix tends to be semantically oriented, that is, it adds new meaning to a base. (Li:10) PREFIXES MEANING EXAMPLESa-lacking inamoral, atypical, asymmetryanti-againstanti-missile, anti-warco-with, jointco-author, cooperatemini-littleminiskirt, mi

16、nibussuperabove, betterSuperman supermarketThough the vast majority of prefixes do not change the original word class, there are prefixes that are class-changing, of which three are the most common: a- forms adjectives from nouns or verbs ( ablaze, asleep, awash) be- forms verbs from adjectives or n

17、ouns (becalm, befriend, bewitch) en-/em- forms verbs from adjectives or nouns (embitter, empower, embody, emboss, enlarge, encourage, endanger)Suffixes are basically class-changing morphemes. (Li: 11-12)CLASS CHANGE SUFFIXES EXAMPLESNouns from Verbs-ation-ment-al -ee-er-ageModernizationGovernmentRef

18、usal, EmployeeWorkerCoverage, postageNouns from adjectives-cy-hood-nessAccuracy, ExcellencyFalsehood, likelihoodHappiness, meannessDerivation/Affixation CLASS CHANGENouns form adjectivesSUFFIXS-ity, -ism, -ist, -thEXAMPLESProductivity, liberalismLoyalist, warmthVerbs from adjectives or nouns-ify-ize

19、-enSimplify, beautifyModernize, hospitalizeShorten, lengthenAdjectives from nouns-al,-y, -ish-esque, -less-some,-ousEducational, hairy,Sandy, foolish, childishPicturesque, selfless,Troublesome,Poisonous, humorousConversion the derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix 词类可以相互转化词类可以相互转化, 特别是动词、名词，特别是动词、名词，形容词之间的转化那家伙是相当频繁啊！形容词之间的转化那家伙是相当频繁啊！This table classifie