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1、目录1.applied arts and fine arts(og)72.the origins of cetaceans(og)123.desert formation(og)194.early cinema(og)285.aggression(og)376.artisans and industrialization(og)467.swimming machines(og)558.nineteenth-century politics in the united states(og)639.the expression of emotions(og)7210.geology and lan

2、dscape(og)8111.groundwater(tpo1)9012.the origins of theater(tpo1)9713.timberline vegetation on mountains(tpo1)10414.architecture(tpo3)11115.depletion of the ogallala aquifer(tpo3)11816.the long-term stability of ecosystems(tpo3)12517.opportunists and competitors (在线测试)13218.lascaux cave paintings(在线

3、测试)13919.electricity from wind(在线测试)14620.deer populations of the puget sound(tpo4)15321.cave art in europe(tpo4)16022.petroleum resources(tpo4)16723.meteorite impact and dinosaur extinction(官方模考题)17424.minerals and plants(tpo5)18125.the origin of the pacific island people(tpo5)18826.the cambrian ex

4、plosion(tpo5)19627.powering the industrial revolution(tpo6)20328.william smith(tpo6)20929.infantile amnesia(tpo6)21630.the geologic history of the mediterranean(tpo7)22331.ancient rome and greece(tpo7)23032.agriculture, iron, and the bantu peoples(tpo7)23733.the rise of teotihuacan(tpo8)24434.extinc

5、tion of the dinosaurs(tpo8)25135.running water on mars(tpo8)25936.colonizing the americas via the northwest coast(tpo9)26637.reflection in teaching(tpo9)27438.the arrival of plant life in hawaii(tpo9)28139.feeding habits of east african herbivores(og)28840.loie fuller(og)29541.green icebergs(og)3024

6、2.chinese pottery(tpo10)30943.variations in the climate(tpo10)31544.seventeenth-century european economic growth(tpo10)32245.ancient egyptian sculpture(tpo11)32946.orientation and navigation(tpo11)33647.begging by nestlings(tpo11)34248.which hand did they use?(tpo12)34849.transition to sound in film

7、(tpo12)35650.water in the desert(tpo12)36451.types of social groups(tpo13)37252.biological clocks(tpo13)37853.methods of studying infant perception(tpo13)38454.children and advertising(tpo14)39055.maya water problems(tpo14)39656.pastoralism in ancient inner eurasia(tpo14)40257.a warm-blooded turtle(

8、tpo15)40858.mass extinctions(tpo15)41359.glacier formation(tpo15)419applied arts and fine artsalthough we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them-clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal-it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which le

9、d to their being known as the applied arts. approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters and supports. there is no way around the fact that containers, shelters, and supports must be functional. the applied arts are thus bound

10、 by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. these laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geography, or climate. if a pot has no bottom or has large opening

11、s in its sides, it could hardly be considered a container in any traditional sense. since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. build

12、ings without roofs, for example, are unusual because they depart from the norm. however, not all functional objects are exactly alike; that is why we recognize a shang dynasty vase as being different from an inca vase. what varies is not the basic form but the incidental details that do not obstruct

13、 the objects primary function. sensitivity to physical laws is thus an important consideration for the maker of applied-art objects. it is often taken for granted that this is also true for the maker of fine-art objects. this assumption misses a significant difference between the two disciplines. fi

14、ne-art objects are not constrained by the laws of physics in the same way that applied-art objects are. because their primary purpose is not functional, they are only limited in terms of the materials used to make them. sculptures must, for example, be stable, which requires an understanding of the

15、properties of mass, weight distribution, and stress. paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. these are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the wor

16、k. for example, in the early italian renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. this was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. in other words, the demands of the laws of physics, not the sculptors aesthetic

17、 intentions, placed the ball there. that this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze). even though t

18、he fine arts in the twentieth century often treat materials in new ways, the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation to their materials in the fine arts and the applied arts remains relatively constant. it would therefore not be too great an exaggeration to say that practitioners of the

19、fine arts work to overcome the limitations of their materials, whereas those engaged in the applied arts work in concert with their materials. paragraph 1: although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them-clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal-it was

20、 once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led to their being known as the applied arts. approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters and supports. there is no way around the fact that containers, shelters, an

21、d supports must be functional. the applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. these laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geog

22、raphy, or climate. if a pot has no bottom or has large openings in its sides, it could hardly be considered a container in any traditional sense. since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so th

23、at functional forms can vary only within certain limits. buildings without roofs, for example, are unusual because they depart from the norm. however, not all functional objects are exactly alike; that is why we recognize a shang dynasty vase as being different from an inca vase. what varies is not

24、the basic form but the incidental details that do not obstruct the objects primary function. 3. the word they in the passage refers to applied-art objects the laws of physics containers the sides of pots 4. which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence?

25、incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. functional applied-art objects cannot vary much from the basic patterns determined by the laws of physics. the function of applied-art objects is determined by basic patterns in the laws of physics. sin

26、ce functional applied-art objects vary only within certain limits, arbitrary decisions cannot have determined their general form. the general form of applied-art objects is limited by some arbitrary decision that is not determined by the laws of physics. paragraph 2: sensitivity to physical laws is

27、thus an important consideration for the maker of applied-art objects. it is often taken for granted that this is also true for the maker of fine-art objects. this assumption misses a significant difference between the two disciplines. fine-art objects are not constrained by the laws of physics in th

28、e same way that applied-art objects are. because their primary purpose is not functional, they are only limited in terms of the materials used to make them. sculptures must, for example, be stable, which requires an understanding of the properties of mass, weight distribution, and stress. paintings

29、must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. these are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. for example, in the early italian renaissance, bronze statue

30、s of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. this was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. in other words, the demands of the laws of physics, not the sculptors aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. that this device was a nece

31、ssary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze). 5. according to paragraph 2, sculptors in the italian renaissance stopped us

32、ing cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because they began using a material that made the statues weigh less they found a way to strengthen the statues internally the aesthetic tastes of the public had changed over time the cannonballs added too much weight to the statues 6. why does the author

33、discuss the bronze statues of horses created by artists in the early italian renaissance? to provide an example of a problem related to the laws of physics that a fine artist must overcome to argue that fine artists are unconcerned with the laws of physics to contrast the relative sophistication of

34、modern artists in solving problems related to the laws of physics to note an exceptional piece of art constructed without the aid of technology 7. an introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. complete the summary by selecting the three answer choices that express th

35、e most important ideas in the passage. some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. this question is worth 2 points. this passage discusses fundamental differences between applied-art objects and fine-

36、art objects. answer choices applied-art objects fulfill functions, such as containing or sheltering, and objects with the same function have similar characteristics because they are constrained by their purpose.it is easy to recognize that shang dynasty vases are different from inca vases.fine-art o

37、bjects are not functional, so they are limited only by the properties of the materials used.renaissance sculptors learned to use iron braces to strengthen the internal structures of bronze statues.in the twentieth century, fine artists and applied artists became more similar to one another in their

38、attitudes toward their materials.in all periods, fine artists tend to challenge the physical limitations of their materials while applied artists tend to cooperate with the physical properties of their materials.8. directions: complete the table below to summarize information about the two types of

39、art discussed in the passage. match the appropriate statements to the types of art with which they are associated. this question is worth 3 points. types of art statementsthe applied arts select 3 the fine arts select 2 statements an objects purpose is primarily aesthetic. objects serve a functional

40、 purpose. the incidental details of objects do not vary. artists work to overcome the limitations of their materials. the basic form of objects varies little across cultures. artists work in concert with their materials. an objects place of origin is difficult to determine. drag your answer choices

41、to the spaces where they belong. to review the passage, click on view text. 参考答案：3. 14. 15. 26. 17. 1 3 68. 2 5 6 1 4参考译文在现代，人们将根据工艺品的制造材质对他们进行分类，如陶土，玻璃，木头，纤维还有金属。但最初人们根据工艺品的功能将他们通通定义为“实用工艺品”。根据工艺品的实用性，我们可以把手工艺品简单分为：容器，遮蔽物，支撑物。毫无疑问它们都是具有一定功能的物品。这些实用工艺品以自然规律为基础，它们的制作材料及其容纳、支撑、遮盖的内容需要符合这些规律。这些规律在工艺品应用

42、过程中非常普遍，不会因文化信仰、地理条件和气候的改变而改变。如果一个壶没有底座，或者在一侧有一个大开口，那么它在任何传统意义上都很难被视为是一个容器。自然规律决定了实用工艺品的一般形式，而不是武断的结论决定的，它们遵循基本的样式，以至于它们的功能不会变化太大。举个例子，没有屋顶的建筑是很少见的，因为它违反了自然规律。但是，并不是所有的功能物品都一模一样，比如我们知道的为什么商代花瓶和印加花瓶不同。它们的区别不是基本功能的不同，而是那些不影响其基本功能的细节存在区别。实用工艺品的生产者会着重考虑这件工艺品对自然规律的敏感性。所以人们认为对纯工艺品的生产来说也是一样。但这种推断忽略了两种工艺品之间

43、重要的区别。纯工艺品不像实用工艺品那样会受到自然规律的限制。因为它们最主要的并不是体现其功能性，其实它们仅受限于制作材料的性质。比方说雕塑必须要牢固，这就需要了解质量，重力分布和压力的性质。油画必须有坚固的支架，才能让画布保持绷紧，并且油画不可以有毁损，裂纹，褪色。类似困难都是艺术家们必须克服的，这些困扰往往影响了艺术家对于工艺品的设计。就好像在意大利文艺复兴早期，踢出前腿马匹的青铜像往往有一个金属球置于它的前蹄下。这样设计是因为需要金属球来支撑腿的重量。换而言之，摆在那里的金属球是客观条件的需要，而不是艺术家的美学意愿。当雕塑家学会如何了用铁支架加强雕塑的内部结构后（铁比青铜更结实），就不再

44、使用金属球了，由此看来，铁球的使用是对于必要结构性的妥协。尽管在20世纪纯工艺品的制作通常采用新的制造工艺，人们对两种工艺品的基本态度仍然保持对立。因此，毫不夸张地说，纯艺术工艺品的生产者需要克服原材料的限制进行生产，而从事实用性工艺品的生产者则依据材料的性质来进行生产。the origins of cetaceansit should be obvious that cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and dolphins-are mammals. they breathe through lungs, not through gills, and give bir

45、th to live young. their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke1 and blowhole2 cannot disguise their affinities with land dwelling mammals. however, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land

46、 and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like. extinct but already fully marine cetaceans are known from the fossil record. how was the gap between a walking mammal and a swimming whale bridged? missing until recently were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional, b

47、etween land mammals and cetaceans.very exciting discoveries have finally allowed scientists to reconstruct the most likely origins of cetaceans. in 1979, a team looking for fossils in northern pakistan found what proved to be the oldest fossil whale. the fossil was officially named pakicetus in hono

48、r of the country where the discovery was made. pakicetus was found embedded in rocks formed from river deposits that were 52 million years old. the river that formed these deposits was actually not far from an ancient ocean known as the tethys sea.the fossil consists of a complete skull of an archae

49、ocyte, an extinct group of ancestors of modern cetaceans. although limited to a skull, the pakicetus fossil provides precious details on the origins of cetaceans. the skull is cetacean-like but its jawbones lack the enlarged space that is filled with fat or oil and used for receiving underwater soun

50、d in modern whales. pakicetus probably detected sound through the ear opening as in land mammals. the skull also lacks a blowhole, another cetacean adaptation for diving. other features, however, show experts that pakicetus is a transitional form between a group of extinct flesh-eating mammals, the

51、mesonychids, and cetaceans. it has been suggested that pakicetus fed on fish in shallow water and was not yet adapted for life in the open ocean. it probably bred and gave birth on land.another major discovery was made in egypt in 1989. several skeletons of another early whale, basilosaurus, were fo

52、und in sediments left by the tethys sea and now exposed in the sahara desert. this whale lived around 40 million years ago, 12 million years after pakicetus. many incomplete skeletons were found but they included, for the first time in an archaeocyte, a complete hind leg that features a foot with th

53、ree tiny toes. such legs would have been far too small to have supported the 50-foot-long basilosaurus on land. basilosaurus was undoubtedly a fully marine whale with possibly nonfunctional, or vestigial, hind legs.an even more exciting find was reported in 1994, also from pakistan. the now extinct

54、whale ambulocetus natans (the walking whale that swam) lived in the tethys sea 49 million years ago. it lived around 3 million years after pakicetus but 9 million before basilosaurus. the fossil luckily includes a good portion of the hind legs. the legs were strong and ended in long feet very much l

55、ike those of a modern pinniped. the legs were certainly functional both on land and at sea. the whale retained a tail and lacked a fluke, the major means of locomotion in modern cetaceans. the structure of the backbone shows, however, that ambulocetus swam like modern whales by moving the rear porti

56、on of its body up and down, even though a fluke was missing. the large hind legs were used for propulsion in water. on land, where it probably bred and gave birth, ambulocetus may have moved around very much like a modern sea lion. it was undoubtedly a whale that linked life on land with life at sea

57、fluke: the two parts that constitute the large triangular tail of a whale1. blowhole: a hole in the top of the head used for breathingparagraph 1: it should be obvious that cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and dolphins-are mammals. they breathe through lungs, not through gills, and give birth to live yo

58、ung. their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke3 and blowhole4 cannot disguise their affinities with land-dwelling mammals. however, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like. extinct but, already fully marine cetaceans are