多元智能理论55443new

1、以智愚来品鉴人类能力的观念自古有之，采用科学方法评定智力高低的历史，迄今也有一百多年，1905年比奈（Alfred Binet）与西蒙（Theodore Simon）受法国政府之委托而编制出的比西量表（Binet-Simon Scale），是为世界上的第一个智力测验，其目的在预测可能会有学习困难的学生。随后，智力测验被世界各国广泛地使用，智商（IQ）也逐渐成为家喻户晓的度量人们智能高下之重要标准。虽然，这种传统的智力测验满足了人们行事上的便利（例如，国人常用以作为能力分班，以及资优班与预官考试之选才标准），但也由于理论与测量方法的偏失而潜在地制造出更严重的问题传统的智力测验通常仅将智力的范围局

2、限在语文与逻辑方面，并假定个体特质能被单一的、标准的、可量化的数据所描述，如此的IQ式思维（IQ-style thinking）（Gardner，1993a，页69）不仅使得人们近乎被洗脑（brain-washed）（Gardner，1993a，页14）地忽略智能的多元发展，造成许多具有其它方面之天赋与才能的学生受到了贬抑与忽视，同时也合理化了制式（uniform）的教育方式，采用单一的课程、教法，以及标准化测验来对待所有学生，而轻忽了个别差异的重要性。1983年，哈佛大学心理学家Howard Gardner的心智架构（Frams of mind）一书，打破传统智力的偏颇论调，提出了多元智能理

3、论，为人类的心灵教化开启了尘封已久的窗，拓展了更宽广的发展方向，也为教育提供了重要的意涵。本文以下分别探讨多元智能理论的内涵、要点及其在教育上的涵意。一、多元智能理论的内涵如上所述，传统智力观认为智能只是一种单一的逻辑推理或语文能力（换言之，除了逻辑与语文能力之外，其它的能力都是没有价值的），如此的智力观点虽然可以准确地说明学生在学成绩的高低，但却难以解释大部份学生毕业后的专业成就与杰出表现。Gardner亦质疑此种智力观点的适当性，认为智力必须与实际生活相关联，而非透过将一个人放在一种非自然的学习环境中，让他做从未做过，而且将来可能不会再做的事情（李平，1997，页8）的方式来决定，基于这样

4、的理念，以及相关研究（包括对脑伤患者、专家、奇才的研究，以及讯息处理机制、心理计量学、实验心理学、认知心理学、生物学等）的综合结果，Gardner重新定义智力的概念，他认为智力应是在某一特定文化情境或社群中，所展现出的解决问题或制作（fashion）生产的能力（Gardner，1993b，页15）。同时，他进一步指出人类智能至少有八种，兹摘述如下（Gardner，1993b；1999）：1、语文智能（linguistic intelligence）：乃指口语及书写文字的运用能力，它包括了对语言文字之意义（语意能力）、规则（语法能力），以及声音、节奏、音调、诗韵（音韵学能力）、不同功能（语言的实

5、用能力）的敏感性。2、音乐智能（musical intelligence）：乃指察觉、辨别、改变和表达音乐的能力，它允许人们能对声音的意义加以创造、沟通与理解，主要包括了对节奏、音调或旋律、音色的敏感性。3、逻辑数学智能（logical-mathematical in telligence）：乃指运用数字和推理的能力，它涉及了对抽象关系的使用与了解，其核心成份包括了觉察逻辑或数字之样式（pattern）的能力，以及进行广泛的推理，或巧妙地处理抽象分析的能力。4、空间智能（spatial intellignece）：乃指对视觉性或空间性的讯息之知觉能力，以及把所知觉到的加以表现出来的能力。其核心

6、成份包括了精确知觉物体或形状的能力，对知觉到的物体或形状进行操作或在心中进行空间旋转的能力，在脑中形成心像以及转换心像的能力，对图像艺术所感受的视觉与空间之张力、平衡与组成等关系的敏感性。5、肢体运作智能（bodily-kinesthetic intelligence）：乃指运用身体来表达想法与感觉，以及运用双手生产或改造事物的能力，其核心成份包括了巧妙地处理（包括粗略与精致的身体动作）物体的能力，巧妙地使用不同的身体动作来运作或表达的能力，以及自身感受的、触觉的和由触觉引起的能力。6、人际智能（interpersonal intelligence）：乃指辨识与了解他人的感觉、信念与意向的能力

7、，其核心成份包括了注意并区辨他人的心情、性情、动机与意向，并做出适当反应的能力。7、内省智能（intarpersonal intelligence）：乃指能对自我进行省察、区辨自我的感觉，并产生适当行动的能力，此种智能也扮演着智能中枢的角色（central intelligences agency）（Kornhaber & Gardner，1991），使得个体能知道自己的能力，并了解如何有效发挥这些能力。其核心成份为发展可靠的自我运作模式，以了解自已之欲求、目标、焦虑与优缺点，并藉以引导自己的行为之能力。8、自然观察智能（naturalist intelligence）：乃指对周遭环境的动物、

8、植物、人工制品，及其它事物进行有效辨识及分类的能力。详而言之，自然观察智能不只包括了对动植物的辨识能力，也包括了从引擎声辨识汽车，在科学实验室中辨识新奇样式，以及艺术风格与生活模式的察觉等能力（Gardner，1999，页116）。二、多元智能论的理论要点多元智能理论的主要内涵已如上述，进一步分析该理论显示它具有多项要点，兹归纳并以智能本身的性质及人类知慧的发展等两个层面分述之。（一）就智能本身的性质而言1、每一种智能代表着一种不同于其它智能的独特思考模式，然而它们却非独立运作的，而是同时并存、相互补充、统合运作的（Gardner，1993a）。例如，一位优秀的舞蹈家必须同时具备（1）良好的音

9、乐智能，以了解音乐的节奏与变化，（2）良好的肢体运作智能，以能够灵活而协调地完成身体的动作，（3）良好的人际智能，以能透过身体动作来鼓舞或感动观众。2、上述八种智能可加以归类成三类：一类是与对象有关的（object-related），包括逻辑数学智能、空间智能、肢体运作智能、自然观察智能，这些能力被个体所处环境的对象所控制与塑造；一类是免于对象的（object-free），包括语文智能与音乐智能，它们不受到物理世界的塑造，而是依据语言与音乐系统而决定的；另一类是与人有关的（person-related），包括人际与内省智能。3、每一种智能都包含着数种次类智能（sub-intelligences

10、），例如音乐智能包含了演奏、歌唱、写谱、指挥、批评与鉴赏等次类智能，所以一个人可能歌唱得不好却很会作曲，不会演奏却善于批评与鉴赏。4、Gardner指出，多元智能论所包含的八种智能模式是暂时性的，除上述八项智能之外，仍可能有其它智能存在。事实上，原先Gardner只指出了七项智能，自然观察智能则是后来才被检视出来的，而Gardner也认为存在智能（existential intelligence）具有足够的资格堪称为1/2智能（Gardne，1999）。（二）就人类的智能发展而言1、每一个正常人至少都具有上述的八种智能，但由于遗传与环境因素的差异，每个人在各种智能的发展程度上有所不同，而且也会

11、以不同的方法来统合或揉和（blend）这七种智能。2、每种智能有其独特的发展顺序，而在人生的不同时期中开始生长与成熟。例如，音乐智能是最早被发展的智能。3、这些智能非固定与静态的实体，它们能被强化与扩大。而文化则是影响智能发展的重要因素，每个文化或社会对不同型式的智能有不同的评价，使得个体在各种智能的发展上有不同的动机，也使得某一社会的人群在某些智能上会有高度的发展。4、人类在所有智能中都有创造的可能，然而大部份的人都只能对某些特定领域进行创造，换言之，大部份的人都只能在一、二种智能上表现出优越的能力。例如，爱因斯坦是数学与自然科学方面的天才，然而他在音乐、肢体运作与人际方面却未有同样的表现。

12、三、多元智能理论的教育涵意如前所述，多元智能理论使我们破除了IQ式思维，跳脱传统心理学所框架出的界限，使我们能深入了解人类智能的本质，为教育理论与实务提供重要的启思与方向。兹述多元智能理论的教育涵意如下：（一）教育工作应致力于八种智能的整体发展：传统教育独断地将焦点放在语文与逻辑数学能力的培养上，并且只重视与这两种能力有关的学科，致使学生在其它领域的智能难以获得充份发展。Gardner的多元智能理论则指出人们至少具有八种智能，每种智能都具有同等的重要性，而且是彼此互补、统整运作的，仅具有语文与逻辑数学智能并不足因应未来生活与工作所面临的挑战，因此教育工作应致力于八种智能的整体发展（Hagger

13、ty，1995）。（二）教育是高度个别化的工作，必须配合每位学生所具有的独特智能之组型：不同的学生具有不同的心智组型，并且会以不同的方法来学习、表征与回忆知识，因此不应以相同的方法、相同的教材来教育所有的学生，有效的教师应配合学生的不同需要而使用各种不同的方法来进行教学（Haggerty，1995）。（三）教育应尽可能鼓励学生建立自己的学习目标与学习方案：教师应尊重学生对自己认知风格的意识，并给予机会去管理自己的学习，并鼓励学生负责任地计画并监控自己的学习工作，以帮助学生逐渐地了解自己的内在潜能与发展这些潜能的方法。换言之，教育应培养学生的内省智能，而非只是背动接受学习方案（Haggerty，

14、1995）。（四）基于多元智能理论的教学设计至少应包括三种不同型式的课程：、智能本身作为教学的主题：亦以教学的目的是在开展学生的多元智能，这是为多元智能而教（teaching For multiple intelligences）。、智能作为一种获取知识的方法：每一种智能都可以用来学习某一领域的知识，例如使用身体动作来学习英文字汇，使用音乐来教导数学的概念等，这是藉用多元智能来教（teaching With multiple intelligences）。、后设智能（Meta-intelligences）：亦即目的在教导学生认识自己的多元智能，包括如何评估、如何强化，以及如何主动地使用多元智能

15、于学习与生活之中，这是关于多元智能的教学（teaching About multiple intelligences）（Lazear，1991）。综而言之，多元智能理论乃包含了整体化、个别化、自主化与多元化的教育意涵。基于这些意涵，如何营造一个适切的课堂环境，以实际落实于教室之中，乃是一个重要的课题。 Introduction Intelligence holds a certain mystique in Western society. Most people, it seems, are awed by their perception of it in others, perhaps

16、even becoming defensive at the thought that their own intelligence might not measure up. Marilyn Vos Savant, the individual who has the worlds highest recorded score on an IQ test, is often referred to as the most intelligent person in the world. Most of us are unable to define precisely what the te

17、rm intelligent means in this context, but she is highly regarded for having lots of it. Because intelligence is so difficult to define as a single construct, most of us have no idea whether we are intelligent. Many of us have chosen not to find out. Years ago while taking an undergraduate education

18、class, I was given the opportunity to take an IQ test. The teacher had arranged for the entire class to be tested in order to encourage us to know more about educational tests. He also gave us extra credit on our final grades for taking the test. Even though the test was free, the time was convenien

19、t and extra credit would be given, only 25 percent of the class took him up on his offer. Of those who participated, more than two-thirds had taken the test previously. Why didnt the rest of us take this teacher up on his offer? I cannot speak for the other 75 percent, but I did not take the test be

20、cause I did not want to find out that I was not intelligent. I was afraid it would be too discouraging. I didnt want to know how limited I might be. My guess is that other students in the class may have felt the same way. In the mid-1980s, when I heard colleagues in other disciplines mention multipl

21、e intelligences, I must admit that I didnt look into the topic right away because of my fears about intelligence as a single construct: those fears expanded greatly at the mention of multiple intelligences and quite possibly multiple constructs. It sounded complicated. I was certain it involved many

22、 statistical procedures that I wouldnt understand. One day, I was in the library looking for a resource book for a class I was teaching. Howard Gardners book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) fell into my hands. Thumbing through the book, I remembered my feelings about inte

23、lligence tests, but I read several passages and was attracted almost immediately. Gardner said that our Western culture had defined intelligence too narrowly. He also seriously questioned the validity of taking people out of their natural learning environments and asking them to do isolated tasks as

24、 a measure of intelligence. Gardner suggested that intelligence had more to do with our capacity for solving problems in natural settings. All of these concepts made sense to me as an educator. I checked the book out of the library, began reading and studying, and have been applying multiple intelli

25、gence theory in my second language classrooms ever since. Today many second language educators know about Gardners theory. They can even name the seven intelligences and give examples of how they have used these intelligences in their own lives. However, it has been my observation that few second la

26、nguage educators actually consider the seven intelligences in their lesson plans and overall curriculum. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to introduce language educators to the theory of multiple intelligences, and to demonstrate how to use multiple intelligences in lesson planning, language le

27、arning tasks, and assessment.The Seven Intelligences Gardner (1983) grouped human capabilities into seven categories which he called intelligences. Weinreich-Haste (1985) claims that many people are surprised at some of the categories because they have never thought about these areas as being relate

28、d to intelligence.Linguistic Intelligence: People who are linguistically intelligent have the ability to use words effectively both orally and in writing. They are effective in using language in a variety of ways-to convince others to do something, to remember information, and to talk about language

29、 itself.Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The ability to use numbers effectively and to reason well is a good indicator of logical-mathematical intelligence. People with this kind of intelligence are good at categorizing, classifying, inferencing, generalizing, calculating, and hypothesis testing.S

30、patial Intelligence: This intelligence includes a sensitivity to form, space, color, line, and shape. It also includes the ability to graphically represent visual or spatial ideas.Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: A person with this kind of intelligence has the ability to express ideas and feelings w

31、ith the entire body. This ability includes such physical skills as coordination, flexibility, speed, balance, etc. Actors, mimes, athletes, sculptors, mechanics, surgeons, or dancers often demonstrate this type of intelligence.Musical Intelligence: This intelligence includes people who are very sens

32、itive to rhythm, pitch or melody. It is demonstrated by people who have an intuitive, global understanding of music as well as by people whose understanding is more technical.Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to sense another persons moods, feelings, motivations, and intentions demonstrates th

33、is kind of intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence also includes the ability to respond effectively to other people in some pragmatic way, such as influencing them to follow a certain action.Intrapersonal Intelligence: Having an accurate picture of yourself and being aware of your inner moods, inte

34、ntions, temperaments, and desires is known as intrapersonal intelligence.Differences from Talents and Aptitudes Many educators look at these categories and wonder why Gardner calls them intelligences. Why arent they talents or aptitudes? In order to show the difference between an intelligence and an

35、 aptitude or talent, Gardner identified basic signs that an intelligence might exhibit in order to be considered an intelligence and not a talent or an aptitude. Armstrong (1995) summarized these signs and placed them into the following categories.1. They must be susceptible to isolation by brain da

36、mage. Assuming that there are brain structures for each intelligence, brain lesions can impair one intelligence while leaving all the others intact.2. Evidence of single intelligences can be seen operating at very high levels in savants and prodigies. An example of this is the musical savant who can

37、 play a piano composition after hearing it only once.3. There should be an identifiable developmental history of the intelligence. There are certain activities associated with each intelligence in an individuals growth. Each activity has a time of beginning in early childhood and a time of peaking d

38、uring ones lifetime. For example, musical intelligence seems to peak early in order to develop a high level of proficiency.4. The intelligence must be rooted in evolutionary history. Gardner hypothesized that each of the seven intelligences has its roots deeply embedded in the evolution of human bei

39、ngs. We find written notations in early cultures demonstrating the presence of linguistic intelligence. We also find early tool use showing bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.5. The existence of an intelligence may be supported by psychometric findings. Gardner is no champion of standardized testing, b

40、ut he does suggest that we can look at standardized tests for support of the theory of multiple intelligences. In the Wechsler Intelligence Scale, for example, children are asked questions that require linguistic intelligence (e.g., vocabulary), logical-mathematical intelligence (e.g., arithmetic),

41、and spatial intelligence (e.g., picture arrangement).6. The intelligence must be supported by results of psychological experiments. Gardner believes that psychological tasks are a good way to see the intelligences working in isolation from one another. Subjects may master a specific skill, such as r

42、eading, but they do not transfer that success to logical-mathematical intelligence. In other words, even though they can read well (i.e., they may have a high linguistic intelligence), they might not be able to do mathematics (i.e., they may have a low mathematics intelligence).7. An intelligence mu

43、st have an identifiable set of core operations. Each intelligence has a different set of required operations in order for it to function. For example in musical intelligence the core operations may be the ability to discriminate among different musical notes and among various rhythmic structures.8.

44、An intelligence can be symbolized. For example, computer languages (e.g., Pascal) are learned easily by people with well-developed logical-mathematical intelligence, and Morse Code is learned by those with a well-developed musical intelligence. Gardner emphasizes that his multiple intelligence model

45、 is tentative and there may well be more than seven intelligences.Key Points for Language Teachers and Students According to Gardner, each person possesses all seven intelligences to varying degrees. This does not mean that we may be highly developed in all seven areas- -it is particularly important

46、 to remember this in relation to second language learners. Our students, like most people, may be highly developed in one or two intelligences, moderately developed in one or two, and underdeveloped in the rest. Each intelligence functions in ways unique to each person; no one is the same as anyone

47、else. Gardner suggests that everyone has the capacity to develop all seven intelligences to a reasonably high level. This is encouraging for language educators. Success in helping our second language learners develop their intelligences-including linguistic intelligence-is a combination of the right

48、 environmental influences and quality instruction. Both of these are factors we can help control. Intelligences work together in complex ways. Because no intelligence exists by itself, language learning activities may be successful because they actively encourage the use of several intelligences. I

49、think of two traditional language learning activities like Twenty Questions or Strip Story (Christison and Bassano, 1995). Most language teachers and learners feel that learning takes place when these activities are used. Perhaps one reason they are so popular is that several intelligences are neede

50、d to carry out each activity. In Twenty Questions, students have the name of an object or animal pinned to their backs. Everyone else knows the word on the students back, but the student does not. Students find out by milling around, asking classmates yes/no questions until they discover who or what

51、 they are. In the Strip Story activity, each students receives a slip of paper containing part of a story. Students memorize their parts, give back their slips, and then proceed to line up and put the story back in the proper order. In these activities the students use linguistic, spatial, interpers

52、onal, bodily-kinesthetic and logical- mathematical intelligences. If you ask students to tell you how they got their answers, you can also include intrapersonal intelligences. Within each intelligence category, there are many different ways to be intelligent. For example, I have a friend who claims

53、he has no bodily- kinesthetic intelligence because he does not participate in any sports. Yet, he built a fence around his property and added a deck to his home. I remind him that it takes a great deal of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to complete these projects.Individual Multiple Intelligence Pro

54、files Armstrong (1995) believes that before we apply any model of learning in the classroom, we should apply it to ourselves as educators. Therefore, the first step in using Multiple Intelligence Theory is to determine our own multiple intelligence profile. If you have not taken an MI Inventory recently, I encourage you to refer to Appendix A in the Armstrong volume at this time and take the