自考词汇学简答题名词解释个人整理.doc

词汇学简答等20140405C0 introductionLexicology is a branch of linguistics, which is both a theoretical and practical course.There are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely _ and _.synchronic, diachronicC1 Basic Concepts of Word and Vocabulary wordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.What is the relationship between sound and meaningThere is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. Eg. Dog means gou in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound rait can mean right, rite, and write, though denoting different things, them have the same sound.Why do more and more differences occur between sound and form?Why is English sound an imperfect representation of the spoken form?l English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.l Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.l Borrowing of foreign language.l Some of the differences were created by the early scribes.l Printing freezes the spelling of words while sound continues to change as usual.VocabularyVocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, all the words used in a particular historical period, and all the words of a given dialect and so on. By _, words can be classified into _.by use frequency, basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary;by notion, content words and functional words; by origin, native words and borrowed words.the basic word stock The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.What is the character of basic word stock?l All national character. The basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us.l Stability, they are likely to remain relatively unchanged.l Productivity, they are mostly root words, means they can form new words with other roots and affixes.l Polysemy, they often possess more than one meaning.l Collocability, many of them have many set expressions, proverbial sayings and so on. Eg, heart, a heart of gold, learn by heart.terminologyTerminology is technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in music, symphony.jargonJargon is the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves as in business, bottom line for unavoidable result.slangSlang is the sub-standard language, which seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like jargon and argot, eg. Dough and bread means money.argotArgot is the jargon of criminals. Only the sub-cultural groups use it, and outsiders can hardly understand it, eg, Persuader means dagger.dialectal wordsDialectal words is words used only by speakers of the dialect in question, eg. Beauty in Australia means excellent.archaismsArchaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. Eg, brethren means brother.neologismsNeologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Eg, internet.functional wordsFunctional words, also called empty words, form words, do not have notions of their own. Their chief function is to express the relation between words or between sentences. Prepositions, conjunctions belong to it. Eg, on, to.What are the features of native words? 7They are in basic word stock.They are neutral in style.They are frequent in use.borrowingsWe can classified the borrowed words into four classes according to _.the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing.The four classes of borrowings are _.denizens, aliens, translation-loans, semantic-loans.denizensDenizens is words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language. Eg. Pork.aliensAliens are borrowings which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Eg, decor.translation-loansTranslation-loans is words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language. Eg. Mother tongue from Latin.semantic-loansSemantic-loans is words not borrow with reference to the form, but borrow their meanings. Eg, the modern meaning of dream borrowed from Norse.C2 The Development of the English VocabularyThree main period in English historyOld English, Anglo-Saxon; Middle English, 1150-1500; Modern English.If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.Three main sources of new words of present-day English vocabulary(1) the rapid development of modern science and technology；(2) social, economic and political changes；(3) the influence of other cultures and languages.modes of vocabulary development in English historycreation, semantic change, borrowing, reviving archaic.C3 Word Formation P208树状图morphemeMorpheme is the minimal meaningful unit in word formation.Structurally, a morpheme is the minimal meaningful unit of language.monomorphemic wordsmonomorphemic words is the morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence, eg, bird, tree, green.allomorphsAllomorphs is morphemes realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word, eg, in cats /s/, in bags/z/.free morphemesfree morphemes, also called free root, is the morphemes which have complete meaning and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences, eg. cat, walk.bound morphemesBound morphemes is Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words, eg, recollection = re+collect+ion.bound rootBound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning like a free root, but it is bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.affixesAffixes is forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.The difference between inflection affixes and derivational affixesinflectional affixesInflectional affixes, also called inflectional morphemes, is affixes which attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectionalderivational affixesDerivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. rootA root is the basic form of a word, which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg, international, the root is nation.stemA stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added in word formation.P44 一个词，拆分分析。如individualistic, undesirable.C4 word formation part 2The major processes of word formation in present Englishaffixation, compounding and conversion.The difference between affixation and prefixationaffixationAffixation, also called derivation, is a way to add word-forming or derivational affixes to stems in word formation.The words formed by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems are called derivatives.prefixationPrefixation is a way to add prefixes to stems in word formation. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.suffixationSuffixation is a way to suffixes to stems in word formation, and the suffixes mainly change the word poundingCompounding, also called composition, is a way to join two or more stems in word formation. Compound is produced in this way. compoundA compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.! What are the characteristics of Compounds, or what are the differences between compound and free phrases?1 Phonetic featuresIn compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. 2 Semantic featuresCompounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. 3 Grammatical featuresA compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.Compounds are different from free phrases in _ unit.答案：semanticVerb compounds are created either through _.答案：conversion or back formationconversionConversion, also called zero-derivation or functional shift, is a way to convert words of one class to another class in word formation. full conversion, partial conversion P58 201104应用，201204简答What is the differences between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples.Comment on the following groups to illustrate the differences between partial and full conversion.Group 1, white - a white, final - finalsGroup 2, rich - the rich, wounded - the woundedNouns converted from adjectives can classify into two types, full conversion, and partial conversion.Group 1 shows the feature of full conversion - a noun fully converted from an adjectives has all the characteristics of nouns and can take an indefinite article or-（e）s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, white is an adjective and a white is a noun phrase, meaning a white man. finals indicates final exams.Group 2 shows the feature of partial conversion - a noun partially converted from adjectives does not have all the qualities a nouns does and retains some of the adjective features. Moreover, they must be used with definite articles. Eg, the poor, the rich.For example, rich is an adjective and the rich is the rich people. .blendingBlending is a way to combine parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word in word formation. Eg, smog = sm(smoke) + og(fog).Words formed in blending are called _.blends or pormanteau wordsblending四个类型，判断等P63head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tailclippingClipping is a way to shorten a long word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead in word formation.clipping四个类型front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.acronymyAcronymy is a way to join the initial letters of organizations or special noun phrases in word formation. So initialisms and acronyms are produced. Acronymy is to join the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms in word formation.initialismsInitialism is words formed from the initial letters and pronouns letter by letter. Eg, VOA.acronymsAcronyms is words formed from initial letters but pronounced as normal words. Eg. BASIC.back-formationBack-formation is a way to remove the supposed suffixes which are parts of the words in word formation.Both back-formation and back-clipping are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. Can you explain the difference? Illustrate your point with examples.Back-formation is a way to remove the supposed suffixes which are parts of the words in word formation, while back-clipping is a way to shorten a long word by cutting the back part off the original and using what remains instead.Back-formation words are mostly verbs, eg, donate(v.) from donation(n.).Back-clipping words are just shortened ones, eg, dorm for dormitory, bike for bicycle, maths for mathematics.举例知道专有名词是哪一类，如nylon - tradenamesNames of people, places, books, tradenames.C5 Word Meaning简答，区分reference和sense.referenceReference is the relationship between language and the world. Only when a word and a referent connect does the word become meaningful.conceptConcept is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.The relationship between meaning and conceptMeaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. Concept is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind, while meaning belongs to language.The relationship between words and things in the world is established by means of _答案，referenceThe reference of a word to a thing outside the languagearbitrary and conventional.senseSense are the relationships inside the language.Every word has sense.给例子，进行motivation分析（理据）motivationMotivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol / word-form and its meaning.onomatopoeic motivationOnomatopoeic Motivation is the character of some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, eg, crow by cocks.semantic motivationSemantic motivation is the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. Eg, the mouth of the river.etymological motivationThe meanings of many words relate directly to their origins.grammatical meanings经常考Grammatical meanings is the part of the words meaning which indicates grammatical relationships such as speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns and their inflectional forms and so on.具体句子分析 P86The dog is chasing a cat.Dog and cat are nouns and both are singular. Is is a function word.conceptual meaning考过Conceptual meaning, also called denotative meaning, is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.associative meaning comprises four typesconnotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.connotative meaning考过，也考过分析。connotative meaning, also called connotations, is the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning. Eg, “home”, denoting “a dwelling place”, is often associate with family.affective meaningAffective meaning indicates the speakers attitude towards the person or thing in question, eg, notorious, meaning famous, shows the attitude of disapproval.collocative meaningCollocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.C6 sense relations and semantic fieldWhat is polysemy and illustrate it.two approaches to polysemy 简答Polysemy is a fact that a word has more than one meaning. The two approaches to it are diachronic and synchronic. Diachronically, polysemy is the result of growth of the semantic structure of one word. Synchronically, polysemy is the coexistence of various meanings of the same word at the same time.two processes of development in polysemyradiation, concatenationThe difference of radiation and concatenationradiationRadiation is a semantic process where the derived meaning being directly connected to the primary process like rays.concatenationConcatenation, meaning linking together, is the process where each of the later meaning being related only to the preceding one like chains.homonymsHomonyms are words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms perfect homonyms, homographs, homophones.perfect homonyms Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Eg, bear - a large animal, bear - To put up with.homographs Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.homophones Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Eg, /di/ Dear -a loved person, deer-a kind of animalThere are various sources of homonymschange in sound, change in spelling, borrowing.The difference between homonyms and polysemants 3Their etymology is different, ie, homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings. In addition, their semantic relatedness is different, you can distinguish them by dictionaries.应用：分析句子，同音词的修辞方法如pun, humour找同音现象；分哪两种方式；如何修辞。P102，P124synonym 考过Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. They share a likeness in denotation and part of speech. Eg, change, alter, vary.Types of synonyms；whats their difference? give an example.absolute synonyms, relative synonyms.absolute synonyms Absolute synonyms, also called complete synonyms, are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects - grammatical and lexical. Eg, composition and compounding.relative synonymsRelative synonyms, also called near-synonyms, are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but are different in shades of meaning or degrees of a given quality. Eg, change, vary, alter.Sources of synonyms(1) Borrowing E.g. Room: chamber(2) Dialects and regional English E.g. railway (BrE) : railroad (AmE ) (3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words E.g. lie: distort the fact（euph)(4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsE.g. help lend one a hand The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas, namely, _ .考过答案denotation, connotation, applicationWhat are the three areas to account for the difference between synonyms? Illustrate your points.denotation, connotation, application.Eg, rich and wealthy, storm and tempest, allow and let.应用P108，extend, increase, expand分析antonymsAntonyms are words which are opposite in meaning. Eg, rich and poor.Antonyms can be classified into three major groups, contradictory terms, contrary term and relative term.contradictory termsContradictory ter