语言学-language-and-society.ppt

7.2 Language and Society,Language is not always used to exchange information as is generally assumed, but rather it is sometimes used to fulfill an important social function to maintain social relationship between people.,7.2.1,How does language relate to society?,How does language relate to society,1）Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. What each of them chooses to use is in part determined by ones social background.,How does language relate to society,When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origin and our background.,语言的社会属性 1年龄 2性别 3社会阶层 4集团用语 (1)行话、单位用语 (2)专业用语 (3)术语 (4)隐语 (5)黑话,三句不离本行,How does language relate to society,2）The social environment can also be reflected in language, and can often have an effect on the structure and the vocabulary.,For example, a societys kinship system is generally reflected in its kinship vocabulary.,How does language relate to society,So, metaphorically(比喻地), language is regarded as a mirror of society, through which we can understand society activities of a certain society better. 语言是社会之镜，透过这面镜子，可以更好地展示社会生活的五彩斑斓。,How does language relate to society,Functionally, society provides language with a suitable context of use, in which we can enjoy aspects of language vividly and truthfully.,社会是语言之根，置身社会语境，可以切身感受到语言使用的方方面面。,Development of Opinions about Relationship between Language and Society,Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）,The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live., Macro-studies Micro-studies,Sociolinguistics,Macro(宏观)-studies the sociolinguistics of society (语言社会学) :,To know more about a given society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members 考察社会成员的语言行为，达到了解 社会的目的,Sociolinguistics,Micro(微观)-studies the sociolinguistics of language (社会语言学) :,To know about some linguistic variations of language use by turning to potential sociocultural factors for a description and explanation 考察语言结构的社会含义，了解语言变体现象，提供语言功能说明,Sociolinguistics,社会语言学 （广义）,语言社会学 社会 宏观研究,社会语言学（狭义） 语言 微观 研究,A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective 社会语境中的文体变异,语言的文体变异是指语言使用者在说话或写作中的语用变体。一个人的文体有时非常正式，有时比较随便， 有时甚至不登大雅之堂。 例如：一般中国人在家庭环境中使用家乡方言，在工作学习时使用普通话。 文体的差异主要是通过不同的发音、不同的语法结构或不同的词汇选择来实现的。 文体不仅可以指一个人对言语的习惯性使用，也可以指具有相同职业背景的人所共有的言语使用特征。,As far as the situational variation in language use concerned, the diversity and richness of some stylistic variants available for a person to choose when engaged in different types of communicative events. 说话人可以根据不同的交际情景与事件，选用不同的文体形式来表现同一信息内容。,Indefinite reference “you” is often used in informal English while “one” is often used in formal English. e.g: You never know what new measures the President will take. (informal) One never knows what new measures the President will take. (formal),In informal style “they” is often used as a pronoun referring to everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody. e.g: Has everyone finished doing their exercises? (informal) Has everyone finished doing his or her exercises? (formal),语言学家把人们因场合不同或角色不同而对自己的语言所作的调整称为语言变体或言语变体。 例如：同是“叫人坐下”这一言语要件,在不同的文化背景下,就可能使用多种不同的语言变体:如“坐!”、“坐下!”、“坐吧!”、“请坐吧!”、“请上座!”、“坐那儿吧。” 决定使用某种文体的因素包括交际的场合、交际双方的身分或关系、 交际的地点、交谈的题目等。,Language Variation - a common language phenomena,中央电视台对话节目曾展示了一个小学生的作文： “昨天晚上，我那很阳光的GG带着他那一点也不淑女的恐龙GF到我家来吃饭。GG的GF一个劲地向我妈PMP，酱紫真是好BT。7456，我只吃了几口饭，就到QQ打铁去了。”,speech community: a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. 言语社区可以定义为构成一个社团的一群人，他们具有相同的语言或具有同一语言中某一特定的变体。,The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms. 言语社区的一个重要特点是同一言语社区的人使用同一语言或同一语言中的不同的变体进行交际，而且他们对他们所使用的语言的规范具有类似的态度。,Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features. 言语变体（speech variety），又称之为语言变体，是语言使用者所使用的具有一定区别性特征的变体。这些不同的特征主要反映在发音、句法规则或词汇上。,Language variation occurs at every level of language,(1) phonetic and phonological variation: e.g. /i/-lead /li:d/ & feel /fi:l/ (2) morphological variation: e.g. center & centre (3) syntactic variation: e.g. I didnt see nothing/ I didnt see anything.,（1）语音变异 北京话中按顺序数数有两种，一种比较正式 ：“一个、两个、三个、四个、五个”。另一种比较随便：一呃、俩、仨、四呃、五呃 “两个、三个”中的“个”分别和“两”、“三”结合成俩、仨；一、四、五、六后面的个（ge）在随便说法中变成了“呃”（e）。“个”、“呃”及结合形式”俩、仨“就是一种语音变异 （2）词汇变异 北京话中第二人称有“你”和“您”两个。“你”是一般的指称，“您”是尊称。 （3）语法变异 他结婚了吗？ 结婚了吗，他？ 咱们从明天开始上课。 咱们开始上课，从明天。,An appropriate language use in any social interaction not only has something to do with structural rules, but also involves some socially institutionalized norms in usage. In this sense, the choice of one form over another is both stylistically and socially governed. 在社会交际中，语言的正确使用不仅仅与结构形式有关，而且也跟社会所认可的语言标准相关联。因此，不同语言形式之间得体和谐的选用与结合，既有形式上的要求，更有语境与文体的制约。,There has been a maxim in sociolinguistics which claims that “ You are what you say” 言为身份 (Lakoff). e.g. Address terms 酸秀才称娘子；庄稼汉叫婆娘。 有修养的人称太太；没文化的人叫老婆。 年轻人称媳妇；老头子称老伴。 不结婚时称女朋友；结婚后叫对鼻子。 北方人称孩他妈；南方人叫伢他妈。,大陆上称爱人；台湾叫内子。 喝过洋墨水的称达令；土生土长的叫那口子。 舍不得老婆的人称心肝；阔别老婆的人叫宝贝。 对老婆亲热时称亲爱的；对老婆厌恶时叫那娘们。 河北人称老婆为家里的；河南人称老婆为屋里头的；,We may expand the scope of our observation by introducing some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. 依据“言为身份”的这一说法，我们可以通过引进一些社会因素来扩展我们的观察视野 。,The following social factors are believed to influence our language behaviors in a social context: (1) Class; (2) Gender; (3) Age; (4) Ethnic identity; (5) Education background; (6) Occupation; (7) Religious belief.,In the middle of 1960s, William Labov, a famous sociolinguist, investigated the relationship between speakers social status and their phonological variations. And it turns out that class and style are two major factors influencing the speakers choice of phonological variants.,人们所处的社会阶层越高，就越接近人们所共认的标准英语，因为社会阶层越高，受教育程度可能越高，或者社会对其交际语言规则约束就越高。再者，人们所处的社会阶层越高，与社会接触就越广，因此常常被要求使用标准语言，促进社会交际。,Variationist perspective: Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects（方言） and varieties related to use as registers（语域）. People who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner.,Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations, for that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects. 语域是在特定的言语情景中使用的语言变体，因此，语域也称为语域方言。,A formal situation may condition a formal register, characterized by formal, standard lexical items and grammatical rules, and speech patterns; while an informal setting may be reflected in a less formal register that exhibits more causal vocabulary, nonstandard grammatical features, and stigmatized speech patterns. 正式情景可能是正式语域的条件，这样的语域以正式标准的词项、语法规则和言语模式为特征，而非正式场景可能产生不太正式的语域，这样的语域呈现出不是太正式的词汇、不标准的语法特征和略有错误的言语模式等特征。,Varieties Make Things Complex,讲起今时今日香港商业的表现，确是不尽如人意。好像我们这些饮食生意，都是好难做的。没办法啦，世道艰难，现在香港人个个都过得比较辛苦，冇钱都是去茶餐厅吃，好少帮衬我们这些大酒楼。不过我对香港还是好有信心的。真正热爱香港的香港人绝对不会希望唱衰香港。返观特区政府，其实都俾足心机重振香港经济。中央政府对我们也非常关心，好像自由行啦，CEPA啦，都刺激了香港的商业。现在好多来酒楼吃饭的都是大陆客，我都好想他们多点来香港走动，帮我们把生意做大做旺。,dialect（方言） Dialectal varieties(dialects): language varieties related to the language users. A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.,Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from. Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable. 语言的地域变异产生了地区方言。语言往往随着使用地理位置的变化而变化。地域变异是语言最易辨别的特征。,Regional dialects are linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions. Regional dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers, or swamps. English Scottish,It needs washing,It needs washed,Social-class dialect, or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. Social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.,The upper class: America, cake, helping, ice, lavatory, looking glass, pudding, relatives, rich, Royalties, scent, scurf, sick, sofa, spectacles, writing paper The lower class: the States, pastry, portion, ice-cream, toilet, mirror, dessert, relations, wealthy, Royals, perfume, dandruff, ill, settee, notepaper, glasses,Speaker A Speaker B I did it yesterday. I done it yesterday. He hasnt got it. He aint got it. It was she that said it. It was her what said it. When we look at the language used by two speakers A and B, we can estimate roughly their relative social status.,In Britain, accent = marker of status RP: （Received Pronunciation ）a non-localized form of pronunciation, refers to the particular way of pronouncing standard English, an indicator of a public school education and thus a high social status on the part of the speaker. EE: （Estuary English） commonly used by educated people in the region around London. Less rigid than RP but more standard than Cockney. Cockney: lower class dialect of East London, considered non-standard by educated people.,Language and Gender,Gender affects ones linguistic behavior This issue began with Robin Lakoffs retrospective study of gender differences Lakoff put forward concerning the linguistic behavior of females women register(女子英语文体形式）,WOMEN REGISTER(女子英语文体形式） 1、Women use more “fancy“ color terms such as “mauve“ and “beige“ 2、Women use less powerful curse words 3 、Women use more intensifiers(强化语) such as “terrible“ and “awful“ 4、 Women use more tag questions 5、 Women use more state questions like “Dinner will be ready at seven oclock?“(with a rising intonantion at the end) 6、 Womens linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than mens.,1、Women use more “fancy“ color terms such as “mauve“ and “beige“(色彩词语使用上男女不同） 在英语中,指称某些颜色的词是女性专用的,如beige (米色), ecru (淡褐色), aquamarine (篮绿色), lavender (淡紫色),azure(天蓝色 )mauve (紫红色)等。This wall is mauve 一个男子如果不是专业人员,使用这些词就会受到嘲笑。,2、Women use less powerful curse words 男子多用新词语、戏虐语、诅咒语、俗语；而女子一般用词比较谨慎、贴切。讲话注重优雅,含蓄。 如：妻子：Oh, dear, youve put the peanut in the refrigerator 丈夫：Shit, youve put the peanut in the refrigerator 女性用dear表示安慰，暗含抱怨，男性用shit表示不满，略带粗野。 Male: Shit, damn, darn it, the hell Female: Oh dear, dear me, goodness me, my goodness,3 、Women use more intensifiers(强化语) such as “terrible“ and “awful“ 妇女讲话常使用一些起强势作用的词语 如：so, just ,never,really， quite, incredible, so good, such fun, exquisite, lovely, divine（好极了）, precious, adorable, darling, fantastic. An example from Pride and Prejudice: Oh! My dear Mr. Bennet, we have had a most excellent ball. Jane was so admired. Every body said how well she looked. Mr. Bingley thought her quite beautiful, I was so vexed to see him stand up with her. I am quite delighted with him. He is so excessively handsome!,4、 Women use more tag questions（多用反义疑问句） 如果夫妇购物时，丈夫会指着一种商品说：This is better妻子却说：This is better isnt it或 This is better dont you think so 女性在表达个人观点或意见时喜欢加上一些表示语气欠肯定、含意不确切的修饰成份。如：Im no expert but；I may be wrong but（我可能不对，但是）； 男性却多用陈述问句（即陈述句后面加上问号所构成的问句），或省略的特殊疑问句（即只用疑问代词或疑问副词所构成的问句）。,5、 Women use more state questions with a rising intonantion at the end 女性说话时多用升调,语调变化多而富有表现力,而男性讲话时多用降调,语调变化少。女性经常使用一种“表现犹豫的特殊语调” “When will dinner be ready?” “Oh.around six o clock?”,6、 Womens linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than mens. 女性的言语比男性显得客气一些,文雅一些 常用最有礼貌的复合祈使句(compound request) a.“Close the door?” b.“Please close the door?” c.“Will you close the door?” d.“Will you please close the door?” e.“Won t you close the door?” 女性比男性更多地使用c、d,特别是e这种类型的句子。,Linguistic Sexism有关语言性别歧视 1、用男性的词来概称男女两性。 如：mankind，manmade，chairman，freshman 如：“All men are created equal”He laughs best who laughs last. 2、汉语的“他”和“她” 。 在不确认时 , 人们则习惯于用“他”, 而不是表示女性的“她” 。 3、一些讲英语国家的人们习惯地认为professor，doctor lawyer等是男性；而teacher，nurse，secretary等是女性。female judge (女法官) , madam chair-man (女主席) , ladydoctor (女医生) , woman lawyer (女律师),4、男性的中心地位和女性的附庸地位 表示婚俗一词“marry” , 如:Jane Bennit was married to (not with) John Smith. (Jane Bennit 嫁给了John Smith。 ) 句中的介词“to”明确告诉我们 , Jane 嫁给了John , Jane 的地位从属于John。 Mr (先生) 是对一位男士的尊称 , 而Mrs. (太太) 则是对一位男子的妻子的尊称 。 张氏 , 王氏。张太太，王太太,5、几乎所有的女性名词都带有贬义 如 queen , lady , mistress , madam等 , 其贬义为“雌猫” 、“情妇” 、以及“鸨母”等 ,而与之对应的 king , lord , masterm , father等词 , 如将他们的起首字母大写即可升格为“上帝” 、“基督” 、 “主” 、 “神”等意义。 奸 , 奴 , 妒 , 妾 , 婪 , 妇 , 娼 ,6、英语中常用一些动物的名称来指称某些女性 , 比如: dog (丑妇 , 贱妇 , 没有成就的女人 , 妓女) ; chicken (见面熟的年轻女人) ; cat (恶妇 , 包藏祸心的女人 , 可卑的女人) ; 7、英语中还有一些带有轻蔑色彩 , 专指中老年妇女的词汇 , 比如: trot (老太婆) ; hen (爱管闲事或嘴碎的中年妇女) ; harridan(面容枯槁 , 脾气暴躁的老妇),Reasons (1) 社会地位和权力因素 女性在社会生活中地位低下和权力有限造成了男女言语行为差异。 (2) 社会心理因素 社会印象认为,女性必须注意自己的言行举止,必须使用文雅规范的语言,否则将是无教养的表现。而男性言语如果傲慢自负、盛气凌人、声大气粗、直言不讳则无可厚非。 (3) 个人心理因素 男性敢于冒险,喜欢逞强,好称英雄,但比较粗心,不太注重细节。而女性文静怯弱,温柔纤细,感情丰富细腻,礼貌友好,但强烈向往异性的支持、爱护和保护 (4) 生理因素 男女的生理差别亦是造成言语行为性别差异的一个重要因素。,the linguistic differences between men and women are culturally and socially governed. reform the language change the society(it is not language itself but womens place in society that makes people linguistically behave in that way) Linguistic Sexism& Gender Differences?an ever-lasting focus in sociolinguistics,7.2.3 What should we know more about Sociolinguistics,Definition of Sociolinguistics Research Scope of Sociolinguistics 研究范围 Significance of study of Sociolinguistics 研究意义,Definition of Sociolinguistics,P18 (Macrolinguistics) Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech. ,-杨永林 社会语言学四十年,简而言之,社会语言学是研究语言与社会之间关系的一个语言学分支。 详而论之,社会语言学研究涉及两个方面的问题:一是语言结构,二是社会语境。通过研究两者之间的交互作用,社会语言学试图透过社会文化现象分析研讨言语行为,并通过语言使用现象说明社会结构及其内在机制问题。,Back,1. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies 宏观和微观层面上的社会语言学 2.Different Directions of Study 不同研究方向 3.Research Issues about Sociolinguistics 具体研究内容,Research Scope of Sociolinguistics,The sociolinguistics of society 语言社会学 -Macro-sociolinguistics , to know more about a given society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members E.g.双语问题,多语现象,语言态度, 语言选择,语言保持,语言流变,语言规划, 语言标准,等等.,双语现象（Bilingualism） 指个人或社区群体可以同时使用两种标准语言的现象。 双语现象 出现在一些特定的国家与地区，主要是因为这些国家地区是多民族居住的，或者是移民社会。,双语现象有两种情况，一是全国范围内的双语现象，比如新加坡，每个公民都会使用英语和本民族语；二是区域性的，比如马来西亚的少数民族被要求学习国家语言马来语，但同时他们也被允许学习本民族语言，因此马来西亚的双语现象只存在于少数民族中，比如马来华人。,例:香港 政府的语文政策是“两文三语”，即书面上使用中文白话文和英文、口语上使用粤语、普通话和英语。 有些粤语词语已作为香港的规范词语。 如落车、行街、走佬、执笠、心机、心水 仍不能写于书面语上:啲、嘅、佢、哋 E.g. 1.你O唔OK？(你行不行?) 2.你用个mau1-si2 right-click嚟highlight个mon. highlight将(计算机屏幕的某区域)增强亮度;使醒目 mau1-si2:mouse mon:monitor (你右击鼠标来选中屏幕上的内容),流变,山行 杜牧 远上寒山石径斜，白云生处有人家。 停车坐爱枫林晚，霜叶红于二月花。 在杜牧的时代，“斜”“家”“花”押韵。在切韵广韵系统里，这几个字都属麻韵平声，可是到了普通话里，“斜”读xi，“家”读ji，“花”读hu。本来是同一个韵的字，分成了两个不同的韵。,选择,语言选择 （语码转换） 发生在持双语者或多语者进行言语交际时的一种普遍现象，它分为情景型、喻意型和会话型三类。 个人语码转换的动机 1.社会因素 2.主观因素,E.g.有一次，英国的伊丽莎白女王回家，在门口敲门。她丈夫问道：“谁？” 伊丽莎白回答说：“女王。”丈夫不开门。 女王又敲门，丈夫又问：“谁？” 女王回答说：“伊丽莎白。”丈夫还是不开门。 女王又敲门，丈夫问：“谁？” 女王回答说：“你的妻子。” 这时，丈夫才开门，把妻子迎入家中。,sociolinguistic study of language社会语言学 -Micro-sociolinguistics, to know more about some linguistic variations in language use by turning to potential sociocultural factors for a description and explanation E.g. 结构变化,称谓形式,性别差异, 话语分析，洋泾浜语现象, 克里奥尔语 机制,等等,Difference,社会语言学-从社会研究语言 E.g. 近20年改革开放以来，粤方言和粤语区的文化在全国取得优势地位，所以新词有从南向北扩散的倾向。类似的新词还有“的士、巴士、写字楼、收银台”等。 语言社会学-从语言研究社会 E.g. “结帐”一词有了来自香港的“埋单”这一新的变体，这反映出近20年来香港取代上海，成为全国时尚之都的社会现象。,Difference,研究方向,洋泾浜Pidgin English （又译“皮钦语” business讹音）是十七世纪以后在殖民地、半殖民地的通商口岸常见的一种语言现象。 这种语言是当地人和外来殖民者在打交道的过程中彼此在语言上妥协而产生的一种能使双方勉强沟通的临时性交际工具。算不上“混合语” 。 E.g. 胡子 grass belong face（属于脸的草） 太阳lamp belong Jesus（耶稣的灯）,克里奥尔语(Creole Language)，是指一种混合多种语言词汇，有时也掺杂一些其他语言文法的一种语言，这个词是用以泛指所有的“混合语”。,研究意义,塞舌尔国国旗,塞舌尔群岛,E.g. 塞舌尔人，海地克里奥尔语,从研究方向上说,社会语言学可分为理论与应用两大部分。 理论社会语言学关注的问题是,在考察语言变体和言语群体结构相关性时应当采取什么模式与方法,并为交际能力的讨论提供一种普遍性的解释; (7.2.2) 应用社会语言学则把研究的重点放在考察隐藏在语言使用不平等现象背后的社会和政治含义上,尤其是在法庭、医院、学校这样一些涉及语言使用问题的公众生活领域(Romaine1994:4005)。 (7.2.4),1.促进课程建设 同句法学、音系学,以及语义学一起,成为不少大学语言学系的核心课程 2.重视应用研究 在法律语言、广告语言、 诊断语言以及广义的语言教学 与研究等领域得到充分实现,Significance of study of Sociolinguistics,3.繁荣语言学研究,为语言学研究提供了一种新的观察视野、新的分析方法,从而丰富了语言科学的研究内容,加深了我们对语言本质的了解 。 1)This is an interesting book, isnt it? 2)This isnt an interesting book, is it? 句子后半部分读作轻声调时,表示信息咨询; 句子后半部分读若降调时,含有期望对方确认之意 涉及：语言性别差异，方言变体 ，“弱式英语”,7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get from Sociolinguistics?,The past decades have witnessed a rapid development in sociolinguistics and the findings in this field have greatly enriched our understanding of the relationships between language and society. Along with the gradual maturity and acceptance of this school of linguistics, there has been an ever growing possibility for us to have a new daughter discipline called “applied sociolinguistics”（应用社会语言学）.,Some more successful practices of this attempt have been found in language classrooms（外语学习课堂）, law courts（法庭语境）, and clinical setting（医院诊所）, respectively.,Firstly, well have a look at sociolinguistics in language classroom. But before we take up this issue, wed better raise this question: What is wrong with the traditional perspective in language teaching?,By asking a question like this, we are in fact making a choice between,Training our students as grammarians,Training our students as active language users,This contrast reflects two different views of philosophy in language teaching.,For traditional school, “language learning is treated as a process of acquiring knowledge, like studying history or mathematics.,The learners will know something about the language