农村区域发展专业英语

Foreword 填空 1： Development studies is a multidisciplinary branch of social science which addresses issues of concern to developing countries. It has historically placed a particular focus on issues related to social and economic development, and its relevance may therefore extend to communities and regions outside of developing world. Development studies is offered as a specialized Masters degree in a number of universities, and, less commonly, as an undergraduate degree. It has grown in popularity as a subject of study since the early 1990s, and has been most widely taught and researched in the third world. In China, this course has been taught in different college of Agronomy. In China Agricultural University, this course has been taught in College of Humanities and Development (the former College of Rural Development). It has also been taught in countries with a colonial history, such as the UK, where development studies originated. As a subject, it is mainly composed of 3 parts: development theory, development research and development practice. 答题 1举 3 个例子说明发展援助并不总是有效的（有无效的时候） 2.4 Effectiveness Aid effectiveness Is the degree to which development aid works ,and is , a subject of significant disagreement. Dissident economists such as Peter Bauer and Milton Friedman argued in the 1960s that aid Is ineffective. Many econometric studies in recent years have supported the view that development aid has no effect on the speed with which countries develop. Negative side effects of aid can included as unbalanced appreciation of recipients currency(known as Dutch Disease) increasing corruption, and adverse political effects such as postponements of necessary economic and democratic reforms. There is also much debate about which form development aid should take in order to be effective. It has been argued that much government-to-government aid was ineffective because it was merely a way to support strategically important leaders. A good example of this Is the former dictator of ZAIRE, Mobuto Sese Seko, who lost support from the West after the Cold War had ended. Mobuto, at the time of his death, had a sufficient personal fortune (particularly in Swiss banks) to pay off the entire external debt of Zaire. Besides some instances that only the president (and/or his close entourage) receives the mone resulting from development aid, the money obtained is often badly spent as well. For example, in Chad, the Chad Export Project, a oil production project supported by the World Bank, was set up. The earnings of this project were used to obtain arms. The government defended this purchase by stating that “development was not possible without safety”. However, the Military of had is notorious for severe misconduct against the population and did not even defend the population in distress. In 2008, the World Bank retreated from the project that thus increased environmental pollution and human suffering. Another criticism has been that Western countries often project their own needs and solutions onto other societies and cultures. In response, western help in some cases has become more endogenous, which means that needs as well as solutions are being devised in accordance with local cultures. It has also been argued that help based on direct donation creates dependency and corruption, and has an adverse effect on local production. As a result, a shift has taken place towards aid based on activation of local assets and stimulation measures such as microcredit. Aid has also been argued that help based on direct donation creates dependency and corruption, and has an adverse effect on local production. As a result, a shift has taken place towards aid based on activation of local assets and stimulation measures such as microcredit. Aid has also been ineffective in young recipient countries in which ethnic tensions are strong: sometimes ethnic conflicts have prevented efficient delivery of aid. In some cases, western surpluses that resulted from faulty agriculture-or other policies have been dumped in poor countries, thus wiping out local production and increasing dependency. In several instances, loans that were considered irretrievable( for instance because funds had been embezzled by a dictator who has already died or disappeared), have been written off by donor countries, who subsequently booked this as development aid. In many cases, Western governments placed orders with Western companies as a form of subsidizing them, and later shipped these goods to poor countries which often had no use for them. These projects are sometimes called white elephants. A common criticism in recent years Is that rich countries have put so many conditions on aid that it has reduced aid effectiveness. In the example of tied aid, donor countries often require the recipient to purchase goods and services from the donor, even if these are cheaper elsewhere. Other conditions include opening up the country to foreign investment, even if it might not be ready to do so. All of these problems have made that a very large part of the spend money on development aid is simply wasted uselessly. According to Gerbert van der Aa, for the Netherlands, only 33%of the development aid is successful, another 33% fails and of the remaining 33% the effect is unclear. An excerpt from Dr. Thomas Dichters recently published book Despite Good Intentions: Why Development Assistance to the Third World Has Failed reads:” This industry has become one in which the benefits of what is spent are increasingly in inverse proportion to the amount spent-a case of more gets you less. As donors are attracted on the basis of appeals emphasizing “product”, results, and accountability the tendency to engage in project-based, direct-action development becomes inevitable. Because funding for development is increasingly finite, this situation is very much a zero-sum game. What gets lost in the shuffle is the far more challenging long-term process of development.” The Massachusetts Institute of Technologys Abhijit Banerjee and Ruimin He have undertaken a rigorous study of the relatively few independent evaluations of aid program successes and failures. They suggest the following interventions are usually highly effective forms of aid in normal circumstances: Subsidies given directly to families to be spent of childrens education and health Education vouchers for school uniforms or between “what is now” and “what will be in the future”. “What will be in the future” reflects the objective an organization wants to achieve after the solution of a certain problem. The presence of an unresolved problem or an unsatisfied expectation can be seen as a problem in itself. It might come from the shortage of human resource or physical resource; or the lack of understanding of the complex social and economic situation, or the lack of experience. After all the problems have been listed out, people come to realize that it is impossible to solve all the problems at one time; and not all of the problems have the same significance. Therefore it is necessary to conduct a systematic analysis about these problems. First the “core problem” has to be found out, which usually locates at the central position of the “problem tree”. This problem tree reflects the cause-effect relationships among these problems. These problems come from different professional fields such as natural science, social science, economic science and environmental science. The problem analysis not only reveals the cause-effect framework, the core problem, but also those problems leading to and from the core problem. Public participation is very important. The farmers know more about their own situations and their own problems than any outsiders. If they come to realize that the objective of the project is to solve their own problems, they will become more active in participating in other steps of the project, especially the implementation process. 填空 6：: 1.5 Objective analysis An objective can be regarded as an expected or planned outcome which will be achieved at some time in the future. Objective analysis depicts the possibility of this future achievement through solving the existed problems. This possibility determines the principle and the potential outcome of the project. This process is simply converting the “negative description” of the problem Into the “positive expectation” of the reality, I.e. the description of the objective. In this way, the “problem tree” which depicts the cause-effect relationship is converted into the “objective-tree” which shows the means-end relationship. Chapter 4 Participatory Development Planning 填空 7：: As an academic field, development studies can be divided into three branches: development theory, development research and development practice. One of the topics which is often mentioned within the development research is development intervention process, which in turn, consists of development policies and development projects. Usually, a development project involves the following stages: baseline survey, analysis, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The participation of different stakeholders in these various stages covers many important research issues. Development can take place at the regional level ( one or several counties, on or several townships), or at the community levels (one or several villages). So a regional planning is an integration and coordination for the planning of all the related areas. The outcome of a participatory development planning is not a traditional economic blueprint, or a technological design, but a concrete development project, which can be carried out. The planning and management of development is an important part of the content of development practice. Participatory development planning is a process participated by stakeholder groups. It is both Problem-Solving oriented and action-oriented and takes the development project as its final outcome. 加 1Development intervention: Development policies Development projects International level National level Provincial level County level Township level Village level (community level) 加 2： Paradigm 范式 Neighborhood 居民点 答题 5规划程序的 5 个阶段： 5.2 Planning procedures He planning procedures can be divided into several stages. 1、 Macro-level stage 宏观水平阶段（政府） 2、 Department-level stage 部门水平阶段 3、 Regional-level stage 区域水平阶段 4、 County-level stage 县级水平阶段 5、 Micro-level stage 围观水平阶段（community/village） 填空 8 Functions of Participatory Development Planning 参与式发展规划的三大功能：: 1、 Meeting the urgent needs of poor people 2、 Implementing the national policy on poverty reduction 3、 Serving as an implementation tool for the large-scale development project 答题 6为什么在规划过程中经常放弃 “理性（rational ） ”而追求“满意”： 9.2 Ration planning Ration is a core issue for planning. When we talk about the rationality of an approach, we mean it is based on analyses and principles, not on feelings and judgments. A rational goal means the approach will bring largest output given a certain input of obtain a certain output with the smallest input. This concept comes directly from the idea of most optical resource allocation in economy. A rational approach involves the following activities: The identification and definition of a problem; The classification of goals and values which are related with the problem; Identifying the number of goals and of solutions for the problem; Predict the outcome of each alternative; Comparison between different alternatives; Identifying one alternative whose outcome is closest to the goal, or solve the problem to the largest extent, or is most cost-effective. However, we can see that rationality is an ideal description. In reality we are limited by our ability to process the information, and we cannot analyze all the information about all alternatives. Under this circumstance, people will Neglect those problems which they are not interested in ; Adjust the scope of the problem according to the learning experience of decision-making in the past Give up rationality and pursuit “satisfaction” Satisfaction is an important concept which can be used to explain many individual and organizational behaviors. I t means people accept solutions that are “good enough”, instead of value-maximizing. This is a daily condition for most common people. When people make a decision, it is often a compromise which can be accepted by all the parties, since it is absolutely impossible to achieve all the goals to the same extent. People try to find a rational solution in life. But even if they know what a rational solution is , they often choose satisfactory results instead of rational result which will bring the largest benefit. Planning in China is to a great extent controlled by the government officials. Some of the plans can never be funded. The planners seldom have opportunity to use the rational approach. Some large-scale planning (e.g. urban planning) creates the condition for the application of rational approaches. However in rural China, the planners might try to use the rational logic to analyze problems or find the solutions, but seldom can use it for decision-making. 答题 7分析规划者在规划过程中如何面对不确定性？如何减少不确定性？（不是为什 么！）： 9.4 Uncertainty in planning The ideal situation of making decisions is one of certainty, that is, a situation in which a planner can make accurate decisions because the outcome of every alternative is known. A far more common situation is one of risk, conditions in which the planner is able to estimate the likelihood of certain outcomes. What happens if you have a decision where you are not certain about the outcome and cant even make reasonable probability estimates? We call such a situation uncertainty. The purpose of planning is to reduce the uncertainty in the future, but planning itself has been under the influence of uncertainty. Uncertainty can be reduced, but never be thoroughly eradicated. In making strategic selection, planers cannot easily predict and control what will happen in the future. What they can do is to analyze the data related with the current situation. Apparently, this might reduce the reliability of planning. There are 2 ways to solve this problem. One is to find the sources of uncertainty so as to better understand and control them; the other is to adopt more flexible action plan so as to make timely adjustment when the uncertainty appears. The planner should stick to implementing the chosen plan, but at the same time should also be open-minded about the planning approaches to make any needed changes. Reasons for uncertainty might include:(不是这段！) Great changes that might influence the implementation can happen at any time, which i